Buddhist meditation

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Buddhist meditation
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Buddhist meditation refers to the meditative practices associated with the religion and philosophy of Buddhism.

Core meditation techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana.[1] The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā[2] and jhāna/dhyāna.[3] Buddhist meditation techniques have become increasingly popular in the wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of reasons.

Given the large number and diversity of traditional Buddhist meditation practices, this article primarily identifies authoritative contextual frameworks – both contemporary and canonical – for the variety of practices. For those seeking school-specific meditation information, it may be more appropriate to simply view the articles listed in the "See also" section below.

Contents [hide]
1 Key Terms
2 Meditation in Buddhist traditions
2.1 In early tradition
2.1.1 Types of meditation
2.1.2 Four foundations for mindfulness
2.1.3 Serenity and insight
2.1.4 From the Pali Commentaries
2.1.5 In Contemporary Theravāda
2.2 In Mahāyāna Buddhism
2.2.1 Meditation in the Pure Land school
2.2.1.1 Mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha
2.2.1.2 Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī
2.2.1.3 Visualization methods
2.2.2 Meditation in the Chán/Zen school
2.2.2.1 Pointing to the nature of the mind
2.2.2.2 Contemplating meditation cases
2.2.3 Meditation in the Tiantai school
2.2.3.1 Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanā
2.2.3.2 Esoteric practices in Japan
3 Adoption by non-Buddhists
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography
7 External links


[edit] Key TermsEnglish Pali Sanskrit Chinese Tibetan
mindfulness sati smṛti 念 (niàn) trenpa (wylie: dran pa)
awareness/clear comprehension sampajañña samprajaña 正知力 (zhèng zhī lì) sheshin (shes bzhin)
vigilance/heedfulness appamada apramāda 不放逸座 (bù fàng yì zuò) bakyö (bag yod)
ardency atappa ātapaḥ 勇猛 (yǒng měng) nyima (nyi ma)
attention/engagement manasikara manaskāraḥ 如理作意 (rú lǐ zuò yì) yila jeypa (yid la byed pa)
foundation of mindfulness satipaṭṭhāna smṛtyupasthāna 念住 (niànzhù) trenpa neybar zagpa (dran pa nye bar gzhag pa)
mindfulness of breathing ānāpānasati ānāpānasmṛti 安那般那 (ānnàbānnà) wūk trenpa (dbugs dran pa)
calm abiding/cessation samatha śamatha 止 (zhǐ) shiney (zhi gnas)
insight/clear seeing/contemplation vipassanā vipaśyanā 観 (guān) lhakthong (lhag mthong)
concentration/absorption samādhi samādhi 三昧 (sānmèi) tendzin (ting nge dzin)
concentration/absorption jhāna dhyāna 禪 (chán) samten (bsam gtan)
meditation/development/cultivation bhāvanā bhāvanā 修行 (xiūxíng) gompa (sgom pa)
analytical/investigative meditation — *vicāra-bhāvanā — chegom (dpyad sgom)
settling meditation — *sthāpya-bhāvanā — jokgom ('jog sgom)

[edit] Meditation in Buddhist traditionsWhile there are some similar meditative practices — such as breath meditation and various recollections (anussati) — that are used across Buddhist schools, there is also significant diversity. In the Theravāda tradition alone, there are over fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty for developing concentration, while in the Tibetan tradition there are thousands of visualization meditations.[4] Most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school specific.[5] Only a few teachers attempt to synthesize, crystallize and categorize practices from multiple Buddhist traditions.

[edit] In early traditionThe earliest tradition of Buddhist practice is preserved in the nikāya/āgamas, and is adhered to by the Theravāda lineage. It was also the focus of the other now-extinct early Buddhist schools, and has been incorporated to greater and lesser degrees into the Tibetan Buddhist tradition and many East Asian Mahāyāna traditions.

[edit] Types of meditationMeditation on the
Buddhist Path


Most Buddhist traditions recognize that the path to Enlightenment entails three types of training: virtue (sīla); meditation (samadhi); and, wisdom (paññā).[6] Thus, meditative prowess alone is not sufficient; it is but one part of the path. In other words, in Buddhism, in tandem with mental cultivation, ethical development and wise understanding are also necessary for the attainment of the highest goal.[7]


In terms of early traditions as found in the vast Pali canon and the Āgamas, meditation can be contextualized as part of the Noble Eightfold Path, explicitly in regard to:

Right Mindfulness (samma sati) – exemplified by the Buddha's Four Foundations of Mindfulness (see Satipatthana Sutta).
Right Concentration (samma samadhi) – culminating in jhanic absorptions through the meditative development of samatha.[8]
And implicitly in regard to :

Right View (samma ditthi) – embodying wisdom traditionally attained through the meditative development of vipassana founded on samatha.[9]
Classic texts in the Pali literature enumerating meditative subjects include the Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10) and the Visuddhimagga's Part II, "Concentration" (Samadhi).

[edit] Four foundations for mindfulnessMain article: Satipatthana Sutta

Lord Buddha meditatingIn the Satipatthana Sutta, the Buddha identifies four foundations for mindfulness: the body, feelings, mind states and mental objects. He further enumerates the following objects as bases for the meditative development of mindfulness:

Body (kāyā): Breathing (see Anapanasati Sutta), Postures, Clear Comprehending, Reflections on Repulsiveness of the Body, Reflections on Material Elements, Cemetery Contemplations
Feelings (vedanā), whether pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral
Mind (cittā)
Mental Contents (dhammā): Hindrances, Aggregates, Sense-Bases, Factors of Enlightenment, and the Four Noble Truths.
Meditation on these subjects develops insight.[10]

[edit] Serenity and insightThe Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:

"serenity" or "tranquillity" (Pali: samatha) which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;
"insight" (Pali: vipassana) which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).[11]
Through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to suppress obscuring hindrances; and, with the suppression of the hindrances, it is through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberating wisdom.[12] Moreover, the Buddha is said to have extolled serenity and insight as conduits for attaining Nibbana (Pali; Skt.: Nirvana), the unconditioned state as in the "Kimsuka Tree Sutta" (SN 35.245), where the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of Nibbana via the Noble Eightfold Path.[13]

In the "Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta" (AN 4.170), Ven. Ananda reports that people attain arahantship using serenity and insight in one of three ways:

1.they develop serenity and then insight (Pali: samatha-pubbangamam vipassanam)
2.they develop insight and then serenity (Pali: vipassana-pubbangamam samatham)[14]
3.they develop serenity and insight in tandem (Pali: samatha-vipassanam yuganaddham) as in, for instance, obtaining the first jhana, and then seeing in the associated aggregates the three marks of existence, before proceeding to the second jhana.[15]
In the Pali canon, the Buddha never mentions independent samatha and vipassana meditation practices; instead, samatha and vipassana are two qualities of mind to be developed through meditation.[16] Nonetheless, some meditation practices (such as contemplation of a kasina object) favor the development of samatha, others are conducive to the development of vipassana (such as contemplation of the aggregates), while others (such as mindfulness of breathing) are classically used for developing both mental qualities.[17]

[edit] From the Pali CommentariesMain article: Kammatthana
Buddhaghosa's forty meditation subjects are described in the Visuddhimagga. Almost all of these are described in the early texts.[18] Buddhaghosa advises that, for the purpose of developing concentration and "consciousness," a person should "apprehend from among the forty meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament" with the advice of a "good friend" (kalyana mitta) who is knowledgeable in the different meditation subjects (Ch. III, § 28).[19] Buddhaghosa subsequently elaborates on the forty meditation subjects as follows (Ch. III, §104; Chs. IV - XI):[20]

ten kasinas: earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, light, and "limited-space".
ten kinds of foulness: "the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested, and a skeleton".
ten recollections: the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, virtue, generosity, the virtues of deities, death (see Upajjhatthana Sutta), the body, the breath (see anapanasati), and peace (see Nibbana).
four divine abodes: metta, karuṇā, mudita, and upekkha.
four immaterial states: boundless space, boundless perception, nothingness, and neither perception nor non-perception.
one perception (of "repulsiveness in nutriment")
one "defining" (that is, the four elements)
When one overlays Buddhaghosa's 40 meditative subjects for the development of concentration with the Buddha's foundations of mindfulness, three practices are found to be in common: breath meditation, foulness meditation (which is similar to the Sattipatthana Sutta's cemetery contemplations, and to contemplation of bodily repulsiveness), and contemplation of the four elements. According to Pali commentaries, breath meditation can lead one to the equanimous fourth jhanic absorption. Contemplation of foulness can lead to the attainment of the first jhana, and contemplation of the four elements culminates in pre-jhana access concentration.[21]

[edit] In Contemporary TheravādaParticularly influential from the twentieth century onward has been the "New Burmese Method" or "Vipassana School" approach to samatha and vipassana developed by Mingun Jetavana Sayādaw U Nārada and popularized by Mahasi Sayadaw. Here samatha is considered an optional but not necessary component of the practice—vipassana is possible without it. Another Burmese method, derived from Ledi Sayadaw via U Ba Khin and S. N. Goenka, takes a similar approach. Other Burmese traditions popularized in the west, notably that of Pa Auk Sayadaw, uphold the emphasis on samatha explicit in the commentarial tradition of the Visuddhimagga.

Also influential is the Thai Forest tradition deriving from Ajahn Mun and popularized by Ajahn Chah, which, in contrast, stresses the inseparability of the two practices, and the essential necessity of both practices. Other noted practitioners in this tradition include Ajahn Thate and Ajahn Maha Bua, among others.[22]

[edit] In Mahāyāna BuddhismMahāyāna Buddhism includes numerous schools of practice, which each draw upon various Buddhist sūtras, philosophical treatises, and commentaries. Accordingly, each school has its own meditation methods for the purpose of developing samādhi and prajñā, with the goal of ultimately attaining enlightenment. Nevertheless, each has its own emphasis, mode of expression, and philosophical outlook. In his classic book on meditation of the various Chinese Buddhist traditions, Charles Luk writes, "The Buddha Dharma is useless if it is not put into actual practice, because if we do not have personal experience of it, it will be alien to us and we will never awaken to it in spite of our book learning."[23] Venerable Nan Huaijin echoes similar sentiments about the importance of meditation by remarking, "Intellectual reasoning is just another spinning of the sixth consciousness, whereas the practice of meditation is the true entry into the Dharma."[24]

[edit] Meditation in the Pure Land school[edit] Mindfulness of Amitābha BuddhaIn the Pure Land tradition of Buddhism, repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha is traditionally a form of Mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti). This term was translated into Chinese as nianfo (念佛), by which it is popularly known in English. The practice is described as calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her attention upon that buddha (samādhi).[25] This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of Buddhist prayer beads. Those who practice this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day, often from 50,000 to over 500,000.[26] According to tradition, the second patriarch of the Pure Land school, Shandao, is said to have practiced this day and night without interruption, each time emitting light from his mouth. Therefore he was bestowed with the title "Great Master of Light" (大師光明) by the Tang Dynasty emperor Gao Zong (高宗).[27]

In addition, in Chinese Buddhism there is a related practice called the "dual path of Chán and Pure Land cultivation", which is also called the "dual path of emptiness and existence."[28] As taught by Venerable Nan Huaijin, the name of Amitābha Buddha is recited slowly, and the mind is emptied out after each repetition. When idle thoughts arise, the phrase is repeated again to clear them. With constant practice, the mind is able to remain peacefully in emptiness, culminating in the attainment of samādhi.[29]

[edit] Pure Land Rebirth DhāraṇīRepeating the Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī is another method in Pure Land Buddhism. Similar to the mindfulness practice of repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha, this dhāraṇī is another method of meditation and recitation in Pure Land Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇī is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists.[30] It is traditionally preserved in Sanskrit, and it is said that when a devotee succeeds in realizing singleness of mind by repeating a mantra, its true and profound meaning will be clearly revealed.[31]

namo amitābhāya tathāgatāya tadyathā
amṛtabhave amṛtasaṃbhave
amṛtavikrānte amṛtavikrāntagāmini
gagana kīrtīchare svāhā
[edit] Visualization methodsAnother practise found in Pure Land Buddhism is meditative contemplation and visualization of Amitābha Buddha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. The basis of this is found in the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra ("Amitābha Meditation Sūtra"), in which the Buddha describes to Queen Vaidehi the practices of thirteen progressive visualization methods, corresponding to the attainment of various levels of rebirth in the Pure Land.[32] Visualization practises for Amitābha are popular among esoteric Buddhist sects, such as Japanese Shingon Buddhism.

[edit] Meditation in the Chán/Zen school[edit] Pointing to the nature of the mindIn the earliest traditions of Chán/Zen Buddhism, it is said that there was no formal method of meditation. Instead, the teacher would use various didactic methods to point to the true nature of the mind, also known as Buddha-nature. This method is referred to as the "Mind Dharma", and exemplified in the story of Śākyamuni Buddha holding up a flower silently, and Mahākāśyapa smiling as he understood.[33] A traditional formula of this is, "Chán points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas."[34] In the early era of the Chán school, there was no fixed method or simple formula for teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods; therefore the Chán school was called the "Gateless Gate."[35]

[edit] Contemplating meditation casesIt is said traditionally that when the minds of people in society became more complicated and when they could not make progress so easily, the masters of the Chán school were forced to change their methods.[36] These involved particular words and phrases, shouts, roars of laughter, sighs, gestures, or blows from a staff. These were all meant to awaken the student to the essential truth of the mind, and were later called gōng'àn (公案), or kōan in Japanese.[37] These didactic phrases and methods were to be contemplated, and example of such a device is a phrase that turns around the practice of mindfulness: "Who is being mindful of the Buddha?"[38] The teachers all instructed their students to give rise to a gentle feeling of doubt at all times while practicing, so as to strip the mind of seeing, hearing, feeling, and knowing, and ensure its constant rest and undisturbed condition.[39] Charles Luk explains the essential function of contemplating such a meditation case with doubt:[40]

Since the student cannot stop all his thoughts at one stroke, he is taught to use this poison-against-poison device to realize singleness of thought, which is fundamentally wrong but will disappear when it falls into disuse, and gives way to singleness of mind, which is a precondition of the realization of the self-mind for the perception of self-nature and attainment of Bodhi.
[edit] Meditation in the Tiantai school[edit] Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanāIn China it has been traditionally held that the meditation methods used by the Tiantai school are the most systematic and comprehensive of all.[41] In addition to its doctrinal basis in Indian Buddhist texts, the Tiantai school also emphasizes use of its own meditation texts which emphasize the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Of these texts, Zhiyi's Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā (小止観), Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā (摩訶止観), and Six Subtle Dharma Gates (六妙法門) are the most widely read in China.[42] Rujun Wu (1993: p. 1) identifies the work Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā of Zhiyi as the seminal meditation text of the Tiantai school.[43] Regarding the functions of śamatha and vipaśyanā in meditation, Zhiyi writes in his work Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā:[44]

The attainment of Nirvāṇa is realizable by many methods whose essentials do not go beyond the practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Śamatha is the first step to untie all bonds and vipaśyanā is essential to root out delusion. Śamatha provides nourishment for the preservation of the knowing mind, and vipaśyanā is the skillful art of promoting spiritual understanding. Śamatha is the unsurpassed cause of samādhi, while vipaśyanā begets wisdom.
The Tiantai school also places a great emphasis on ānāpānasmṛti, or mindfulness of breathing, in accordance with the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Zhiyi classifies breathing into four main categories: panting (喘), unhurried breathing (風), deep and quiet breathing (氣), and stillness or rest (息). Zhiyi holds that the first three kinds of breathing are incorrect, while the fourth is correct, and that the breathing should reach stillness and rest.[45]

[edit] Esoteric practices in JapanOne of the adaptations by the Japanese Tendai (Ch. Tiantai) school was the introduction of esoteric practices (Mikkyo) into Tendai Buddhism, which was later named Taimitsu by Ennin. Eventually, according to Tendai Taimitsu doctrine, the esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the Lotus Sutra. Therefore, by chanting mantras, maintaining mudras, or performing certain meditations, one is able to see that the sense experiences are the teachings of Buddha, have faith that one is inherently an enlightened being, and one can attain enlightenment within this very body. The origins of Taimitsu are found in China, similar to the lineage that Kukai encountered in his visit to China during the Tang Dynasty, and Saicho's disciples were encouraged to study under Kukai.[46]

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Adoption by non-BuddhistsMain article: Mindfulness (psychology)
For a long time people have practiced meditation, based on Buddhist meditation principles, in order to effect mundane and worldly benefit.[47] Buddhist meditation techniques are increasingly being employed by psychologists and psychiatrists to help alleviate a variety of health conditions such as anxiety and depression.[48] As such, mindfulness and other Buddhist meditation techniques are being advocated in the West by innovative psychologists and expert Buddhist meditation teachers such as Clive Sherlock, Mother Sayamagyi, S.N. Goenka, Jon Kabat-Zinn, Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Alan Clements, and Sharon Salzberg, who have been widely attributed with playing a significant role in integrating the healing aspects of Buddhist meditation practices with the concept of psychological awareness and healing.

The accounts of meditative states in the Buddhist texts are in some regards free of dogma, so much so that the Buddhist scheme has been adopted by Western psychologists attempting to describe the phenomenon of meditation in general.[49] Nevertheless, it is exceedingly common to encounter the Buddha describing meditative states involving the attainment of such magical powers (P. iddhi) as the ability to multiply one's body into many and into one again, appear and vanish at will, pass through solid objects as if space, rise and sink in the ground as if in water, walking on water as if land, fly through the skies, touching anything at any distance (even the moon or sun), and travel to other worlds (like the world of Brahma) with or without the body, among other things.[50][51][52]

[edit] See alsoTheravada Buddhist meditation practices:

Anapanasati - focusing on the breath
Metta - cultivation of compassion and loving-kindness
Kammaṭṭhāna
Samatha - calm abiding
Vipassana - insight
Mahasati Meditation
Zen Buddhist meditation practices:

Shikantaza - just sitting
Zazen
Koan
Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism meditation practices:

Tantra techniques
Ngondro - preliminary practices
Tonglen - giving and receiving
Phowa - transference of consciousness at the time of death
Chöd - cutting through fear by confronting it
Mahamudra - the Kagyu version of 'entering the all-pervading Dharmadatu', the 'nondual state', or the 'absorption state'
Dzogchen - the natural state, the Nyingma version of Mahamudra
The Four Immeasurables, Metta
Tantra
Related Buddhist practices:

Mindfulness - awareness in the present moment
Mindfulness (psychology) - Western applications of Buddhist ideas
Satipatthana
chanting and mantra
Proper floor-sitting postures and supports while meditating:

Floor sitting: cross-legged (full lotus, half lotus, Burmese) or seiza
Cushions: zafu, zabuton
Traditional Buddhist texts on meditation:

Anapanasati Sutta
Satipatthana Sutta
Visuddhimagga
Traditional preliminary practices to Buddhist meditation:

prostrations (also see Ngondro)
refuge in the Triple Gem
Five Precepts
Analog in Vedas:

Paramatma
Ksirodakasayi Vishnu
[edit] Notes1.^ For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).
2.^ The Pāli and Sanskrit word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of the Pali Canon, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, MN 62), Ven. Sariputta tells Ven. Rahula (in Pali, based on VRI, n.d.): ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. Thanissaro (2006) translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of mindfulness of in-&-out breathing." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)
3.^ See, for example, Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry for "jhāna1"; Thanissaro (1997); as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna." PTS Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
"...[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [Pali:] jhāna) or 'concentrations' (samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world." (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.)
4.^ Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to the Satipatthana Sutta, "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called vipassana..., and in one form or another — and by whatever name — are found in all the major Buddhist traditions" (p. 92). The forty concentrative meditation subjects refer to Visuddhimagga's oft-referenced enumeration. Regarding Tibetan visualizations, Kamalashila (2003), writes: "The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas" (p. 227).
5.^ Examples of contemporary school-specific "classics" include, from the Theravada tradition, Nyanaponika (1996) and, from the Zen tradition, Kapleau (1989).
6.^ For instance, from the Pali Canon, see MN 44 (Thanissaro, 1998a) and AN 3:88 (Thanissaro, 1998b). In Mahayana tradition, the Lotus Sutra lists the Six Perfections (paramita) which echoes the threefold training with the inclusion of virtue (śīla), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (prajñā).
7.^ Dharmacarini Manishini, Western Buddhist Review. Accessed at www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/kamma_in_context.html
8.^ See, for instance, Bodhi (1999).
9.^ For example, Bodhi (1999), in discussing a latter stage of developing Right View (that of "penetrating" the Four Noble Truths), states:
To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation — first to strengthen the capacity for sustained concentration, then to develop insight.
10.^ For instance, see Solé-Leris (1986), p. 75; and, Goldstein (2003), p. 92.
11.^ These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the "Four Kinds of Persons Sutta" (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. See also Thanissaro (1998d).
12.^ See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267-68, and Thanissaro (1998e).
13.^ Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-53. See also Thanissaro (1998c) (where this sutta is identified as SN 35.204). See also, for instance, a discourse (Pali: sutta) entitled, "Serenity and Insight" (SN 43.2), where the Buddha states: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight...." (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73).
14.^ While the Nikayas identify that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, a fruitful vipassana-oriented practice must still be based upon the achievement of stabilizing "access concentration" (Pali: upacara samadhi).
15.^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also Thanissaro (1998f).
16.^ See Thanissaro (1997) where for instance he underlines:
When [the Pali discourses] depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying 'go do vipassana,' but always 'go do jhana.' And they never equate the word vipassana with any mindfulness techniques. In the few instances where they do mention vipassana, they almost always pair it with samatha — not as two alternative methods, but as two qualities of mind that a person may 'gain' or 'be endowed with,' and that should be developed together.
Similarly, referencing MN 151, vv. 13-19, and AN IV, 125-27, Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the Thai Forest Tradition) writes:
Some traditions speak of two types of meditation, insight meditation (vipassana) and calm meditation (samatha). In fact, the two are indivisible facets of the same process. Calm is the peaceful happiness born of meditation; insight is the clear understanding born of the same meditation. Calm leads to insight and insight leads to calm. (Brahm, 2006, p. 25.)
17.^ See, for instance, Bodhi (1999) and Nyanaponika (1996), p. 108.
18.^ Sarah Shaw, Buddhist meditation: an anthology of texts from the Pāli canon. Routledge, 2006, pages 6-8. A Jataka tale gives a list of 38 of them. [1].
19.^ Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), pp. 85, 90.
20.^ Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), p. 110.
21.^ Regarding the jhanic attainments that are possible with different meditation techniques, see Gunaratana (1988).
22.^ Tiyavanich K. Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand. University of Hawaii Press, 1997.
23.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 11
24.^ Nan, Huai-Chin. To Realize Enlightenment: Practice of the Cultivation Path. 1994. p. 1
25.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 83
26.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 83
27.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 84
28.^ Yuan, Margaret. Grass Mountain: A Seven Day Intensive in Ch'an Training with Master Nan Huai-Chin. 1986. p. 55
29.^ Yuan, Margaret. Grass Mountain: A Seven Day Intensive in Ch'an Training with Master Nan Huai-Chin. 1986. p. 55
30.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 84
31.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 84
32.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 85
33.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 44
34.^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 92
35.^ Yuan, Margaret. Grass Mountain: A Seven Day Intensive in Ch'an Training with Master Nan Huai-Chin. 1986. p. 2
36.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 45
37.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 45
38.^ Hsuan Hua. The Chan Handbook. 2004. p. 47
39.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 49
40.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 48
41.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 110
42.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 110
43.^ Rujun Wu (1993). T'ien-T'ai Buddhism and early Mādhyamika. National Foreign Language Center Technical Reports. Buddhist studies program. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1561-0, 9780824815615. Source: [2] (accessed: Thursday April 22, 2010)
44.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 111
45.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 125
46.^ Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. pp. 45. ISBN 0231112866.
47.^ See, for instance, Zongmi's description of bonpu and gedō zen, described further below.
48.^ Cornfield, J. (2003). Publisher's Weekly review of Radical acceptance: embracing your life with the heart of a Buddha [Editorial Review]. Retrieved April 17, 2009, from www.amazon.com/gp/product/0553801678/ ref=dp_proddesc_1?ie=UTF8&n=283155
49.^ Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 33-34. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986. The author is referring to Pali literature. See however B. Alan Wallace, The bridge of quiescence: experiencing Tibetan Buddhist meditation. Carus Publishing Company, 1998, where the author demonstrates similar approaches to analyzing meditation within the Indo-Tibetan and Theravada traditions.
50.^ Iddhipada-vibhanga Sutta
51.^ Samaññaphala Sutta
52.^ Kevatta Sutta
[edit] BibliographyBodhi, Bhikkhu (1999). The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. Available on-line at www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html.
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-331-1.
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2005). In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pāli Canon. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-491-1.
Brach, Tara (ed.) (2003) Radical Acceptance: Embracing Your Life With the Heart of a Buddha. New York, Bantam Publications. ISBN 0-553-38099-0
Brahm, Ajahn (2006). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-275-7.
Buddhaghosa, Bhadantacariya & Bhikkhu Nanamoli (trans.) (1999), The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle: BPS Pariyatti Editions. ISBN 1-928706-00-2.
Epstein, Mark (1995). Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-03931-6 (cloth). ISBN 0-465-08585-7 (paper).
Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Michael S. Diener & Michael H. Kohn (trans.) (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-520-4 (French ed.: Monique Thiollet (trans.) (1989). Dictionnaire de la Sagesse Orientale. Paris: Robert Laffont. ISBN 2-221-05611-6.)
Gethin, Rupert (1998). The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289223-1.
Goldstein, Joseph (2003). One Dharma: The Emerging Western Buddhism. NY: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-251701-5.
Hart, William (1987). The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation: As Taught by S.N. Goenka. HarperOne. ISBN 0-06-063724-2
Gunaratana, Henepola (1988). The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation (Wheel No. 351/353). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0035-X. Retrieved 2008-07-21 from "Access to Insight" at www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/gunaratana/wheel351.html.
Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2001). Full Catastrophe Living. NY: Dell Publishing. ISBN 0-385-30312-2.
Kamalashila (1996, 2003). Meditation: The Buddhist Art of Tranquility and Insight. Birmingham: Windhorse Publications. ISBN 1-899579-05-2. Available on-line at kamalashila.co.uk/Meditation_Web/index.htm.
Kapleau, Phillip (1989). The Three Pillars of Zen: Teaching, Practice and Enlightenment. NY: Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-26093-8.
Linehan, Marsha (1993). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. NY: Guilford Press. ISBN 0-89862-183-6.
Mipham, Sakyong (2003). Turning the Mind into an Ally. NY: Riverhead Books. ISBN 1-57322-206-2.
Nyanaponika Thera (1996). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, Inc. ISBN 0-87728-073-8.
Olendzki, Andrew (trans.) (2005). Sedaka Sutta: The Bamboo Acrobat (SN 47.19). Available at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn47/sn47.019.olen.html.
Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.) (1921-5). The Pali Text Society’s Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/.
Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, ISBN 0-06-250834-2
Solé-Leris, Amadeo (1986). Tranquillity & Insight: An Introduction to the Oldest Form of Buddhist Meditation. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-385-6.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997). One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice. Available on-line at www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998a). Culavedalla Sutta: The Shorter Set of Questions-and-Answers (MN 44). Retrieved 2007-06-22 from "Access to Insight" at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.044.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998b). Sikkha Sutta: Trainings (1) (AN 3:38). Retrieved 2007-06-22 from "Access to Insight" at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.088.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998c). Kimsuka Sutta: The Riddle Tree (SN 35.204). Available on-line at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn35/sn35.204.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998d). Samadhi Sutta: Concentration (Tranquillity and Insight) (AN 4.94). Available on-line at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998e). Vijja-bhagiya Sutta: A Share in Clear Knowing (AN 2.30). Available on-line at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998f). Yuganaddha Sutta: In Tandem (AN 4.170). Available on-line at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.170.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2006). Maha-Rahulovada Sutta: The Greater Exhortation to Rahula (MN 62). Retrieved 2007-11-07 from "Access to Insight" at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html.
Vipassana Research Institute (VRI) (n.d.). Bhikkhuvaggo (second chapter of the second volume of the Majjhima Nikaya). Retrieved 2007-11-07 from VRI at www.tipitaka.org/romn/cscd/s0202m.mul1.xml.
[edit] External links This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links. (December 2009)

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Anapanasati Quan Hoi Tho

Ānāpānasati (Pali; Sanskrit: ānāpānasmṛti; Chinese: 安那般那; Pīnyīn: ānnàbānnà), meaning 'mindfulness of breathing' ("sati" means mindfulness; "ānāpāna" refers to inhalation and exhalation), is a fundamental form of meditation originally taught by the Buddha. Anapansati was originally taught by The Buddha in several sutras including the Ānāpānasati Sutta,[1] According to the Anapanasati Sutta and several teachers in Theravada Buddhism, anapanasati alone will lead to the removal of all one's defilements (kilesa) and eventually to Enlightenment. In the Tibetan Buddhist lineage, anapanasati is done to calm the mind in order to prepare one for the practices of Mahamudra and Dzogchen.

Anapanasati can also be practised with other traditional meditation subjects including the four frames of reference[2] and mettā bhāvanā,[3] as is done in the Theravada lineage of modern Buddhism.

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Anapanasati is a core meditation practice in Theravada, Tiantai, and Chán/Zen traditions of Buddhism, as well as a part of many modern Western mindfulness-based programs. In both ancient and modern times, anapanasati by itself is likely the most widely used Buddhist method for contemplating bodily phenomena.[4]

The Anapanasati Sutta specifically concerns mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation, as a part of paying attention to one's body in quietude, and recommends the practice of ānāpānasati meditation as a means of cultivating the seven factors of awakening: sati (mindfulness), dhamma vicaya (analysis), viriya (persistence), which leads to piti (rapture), then to passaddhi (serenity), which in turn leads to samadhi (concentration) and then to upekkhā (equanimity). Finally, the Buddha taught that, with these factors developed in this progression, the practice of ānāpānasati would lead to release (Pali: nibbāna; Sanskrit: nirvana) from suffering (dukkha).

Traditionally, anapanasati has been used as a basis for developing meditative concentration (samadhi) until reaching the state and practice of full absorption (jhana). It is the same state reached by the Buddha during his quest for Enlightenment.[5][clarification needed]

[edit] The practice[edit] Traditional sourcesSee also: Anapanasati Sutta
A traditional method given by The Buddha in the Satipatthana Sutta is to go into the forest and sit beneath a tree and then to simply watch the breath, if the breath is long, to notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short.[6][7]

While inhaling and exhaling, the meditator practises:

training the mind to be sensitive to one or more of: the entire body, rapture, pleasure, the mind itself, and mental processes
training the mind to be focused on one or more of: inconstancy, dispassion, cessation, and relinquishment
steadying, satisfying, or releasing the mind.
A popular non-canonical method used today, loosely based on the Visuddhimagga, follows four stages:

1.counting each breath at the end of exhalation
2.counting each breath at the beginning of inhalation
3.focusing on the breath without counting
4.focusing only on the spot where the breath enters and leaves the nostrils (i.e., the nostril and upper lip area).[8]
[edit] Modern sourcesFirst, for the practice to be successful, one should dedicate the practice, and set out the goal of the meditation session.[9] One may decide to either practice ānāpānasati while seated or while walking, or to alternate seated and walking meditation.[10] Then one may concentrate on the breath going through one's nose: the pressure in the nostrils on each inhalation, and the feeling of the breath moving along the upper lip on each exhalation.[10] Other times practitioners are advised to attend to the breath at the tanden, a point slightly below the navel and beneath the surface of the body.[11] Practitioners may choose to count each inhalation, "1, 2, 3,..." and so on, up to 10, and then begin from 1 again. Alternatively people sometimes count the exhalation, "1, 2, 3,...," or both the inhalation and exhalation.[11] If the count is lost then one should start again from the beginning.

The type of practice recommended in The Three Pillars of Zen is for one to count "1, 2, 3,..." on the inhalation for a while, then to eventually switch to counting on the exhalation, then eventually, once one has more consistent success in keeping track of the count, to begin to pay attention to the breath without counting. There are practitioners who only count the breath all their lives as well.[12] Beginning students are often advised to keep their practice short, around 10 or 15 minutes a day. Also, a teacher or guide of some sort is often considered to be essential in Buddhist practice, as well as the sangha for support.

When one becomes distracted from the breath, which happens to both beginning and adept practitioners, either by a thought or something else, then one simply returns their attention back to the breath. Philippe Goldin has said that important, "learning," occurs at the moment when practitioners turn their attention back to the object of focus, the breath.[13]

[edit] Active breathing, passive breathingSee also: Pranayama
Anapanasati is most commonly practiced with attention centered on the breath, while breathing let done naturally. One exception to this is the bamboo method, during which time one will inhale in short gasps and then exhale in short gasps, as if running one's hand along the stalk of a bamboo tree.[12]

In the throat singing prevalent amongst the Buddhist monks of Tibet and Mongolia[14] the long and slow outbreath during chanting is the core of the practice. The sound of the chant also serves to focus the mind in one-pointed concentration samadhi, while the sense of self dissolves as awareness becomes absorbed into a realm of pure sound. In Zen meditation, the emphasis is upon maintaining "strength in the abdominal area" [15] (dantian or "tanden") and slow deep breathing during the long outbreath, again to assist the attainment of a mental state of one-pointed concentration.

[edit] BenefitsIt has been scientifically demonstrated that practicing ānāpānasati improves one's ability to focus, improves executive functioning, slows down the natural aging process of the brain, and both increases and maintains the amount of grey matter in the brain in regions involved with watching the breath. See also Research on meditation.

[edit] Stages of ĀnāpānasatiFormally, there are sixteen stages — or contemplations — of ānāpānasati. These are divided into four tetrads (i.e., sets or groups of four). The first four steps involve focusing the mind on breathing, which is the 'body-conditioner' (Pali: kāya-sankhāra). The second tetrad involves focusing on the feelings (vedanā), which are the 'mind-conditioner' (Pali: citta-sankhāra). The third tetrad involves focusing on the mind itself (Pali: citta), and the fourth on 'mental qualities' (Pali: dhamma). (Compare right mindfulness and satipatthana.)

Any ānāpānasati meditation session should progress through the stages in order, beginning at the first, whether the practitioner has performed all stages in a previous session or not.

In the Chinese tradition
Buddhacinga, a monk who came to China and widely propagated ānāpānasmṛti methods.In the 2nd century CE, the Buddhist monk An Shigao came from Northwest India to China and became one of the first translators of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. He translated a version of the Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra between 148 CE and 170 CE. This version is a significantly longer text than what appears in the Ekottara Āgama, and is entitled, "The Great Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra" (Ch. 大安般守意經) (Taishō Tripiṭaka 602).

At a later date, Buddhacinga, more commonly known as Fotudeng (佛圖澄) (231-349 CE), came from Central Asia to China in 310 CE and propagated Buddhism widely. He is said to have demonstrated many spiritual powers, and was able to convert the warlords in this region of China over to Buddhism.[16] He is especially known for teaching methods of meditation, and especially ānāpānasmṛti. Fotudeng widely taught ānāpānasmṛti through methods of counting breaths, so as to temper to the breathing, simultaneously focusing the mind into a state of peaceful meditative concentration.[17] By teaching meditation methods as well as doctrine, Fotudeng popularized Buddhism quickly. According to Nan Huaijin, "Besides all its theoretical accounts of emptiness and existence, Buddhism also offered methods for genuine realization of spiritual powers and meditative concentration that could be relied upon. This is the reason that Buddhism began to develop so vigorously in China with Fotudeng."[17]

Buddhacinga, a monk who came to China and widely propagated ānāpānasmṛti methods.

As more monks such as Kumārajīva, Dharmanandi, Gautama Saṃghadeva, and Buddhabhadra came to the East, translations of meditation texts did as well, which often taught various methods of ānāpānasmṛti that were being used in India. These became integrated in various Buddhist traditions, as well as into non-Buddhist traditions such as Daoism.

In the 6th century CE, the Tiantai school was formed, teaching the One Vehicle (Skt. Ekayāna), the vehicle of attaining Buddhahood, as the main principle, and three forms of śamatha-vipaśyanā correlated with the meditative perspectives of emptiness, provisional existence, and the mean, as the method of cultivating realization.[18] The Tiantai school places emphasis on ānāpānasmṛti in accordance with the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. In China, the Tiantai understanding of meditation has had the reputation of being the most systematic and comprehensive of all.[19] The founder of the Tiantai school, Śramaṇa Zhiyi, wrote many commentaries and treatises on meditation. Of these texts, Zhiyi's Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā (Ch. 小止観), his Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā (Ch. 摩訶止観), and his Six Subtle Dharma Gates (Ch. 六妙法門) are the most widely read in China.[19] Zhiyi classifies breathing into four main categories: panting (喘), unhurried breathing (風), deep and quiet breathing (氣), and stillness or rest (息). Zhiyi holds that the first three kinds of breathing are incorrect, while the fourth is correct, and that the breathing should reach stillness and rest.[20] Venerable Hsuan Hua, who taught Chán/Zen and Pure Land Buddhism, also taught that the external breathing reaches a state of stillness in correct meditation:[21]

A practitioner with sufficient skill does not breathe externally. That external breathing has stopped, but the internal breathing functions. With internal breathing there is no exhalation through the nose or mouth, but all pores on the body are breathing. A person who is breathing internally appears to be dead, but actually he has not died. He does not breathe externally, but the internal breathing has come alive.
[edit] In the Tibetan traditionTwo of the most important Mahāyāna philosophers, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, in the Śrāvakabhūmi chapter of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra and the Abhidharma-kośa, respectively, make it clear that they consider ānāpānasmṛti a profound practice leading to vipaśyanā (in accordance with the teachings of the Buddha in the Sutra pitika).[22] However, as scholar Leah Zahler has demonstrated, "the practice traditions related to Vasubandhu's or Asaṅga's presentations of breath meditation were probably not transmitted to Tibet."[23] Asaṅga correlates the sixteen stages ānāpānasmṛti with the four smṛtyupasthānas in the same way that the Ānāpānasmṛti Sutra does, but because he does not make this explicit the point was lost on later Tibetan commentators.[24]

As a result, the largest Tibetan lineage, the Geluk, came to view ānāpānasmṛti as a mere preparatory practice useful for settling the mind but nothing more.[25] Zahler writes:

The practice tradition suggested by the Treasury itself--and also by Asaṅga's Grounds of Hearers--is one in which mindfulness of breathing becomes a basis for inductive reasoning on such topics as the five aggregates; as a result of such inductive reasoning, the meditator progresses through the Hearer paths of preparation, seeing, and meditation. It seems at least possible that both Vasubandhu and Asaṅga presented their respective versions of such a method, analogous to but different from modern Theravāda insight meditation, and that Gelukpa scholars were unable to reconstruct it in the absence of a practice tradition because of the great difference between this type of inductive meditative reasoning based on observation and the types of meditative reasoning using consequences (thal 'gyur, prasaanga) or syllogisms (sbyor ba, prayoga) with which Gelukpas were familiar. Thus, although Gelukpa scholars give detailed intepretations of the systems of breath meditation set forth in Vasubandu's and Asaṅga's texts, they may not fully account for the higher stages of breath meditation set forth in those texts. . . it appears that neither the Gelukpa texbook writers nor modern scholars such as Lati Rinpoche and Gendun Lodro were in a position to conclude that the first moment of the fifth stage of Vasubandhu's system of breath meditation coincides with the attainment of special insight and that, therefore, the first four stages must be a method for cultivating special insight [although this is clearly the case].[26]

Zahler continues, "it appears . .that a meditative tradition consisting of analysis based on observation—inductive reasoning within meditation—was not transmitted to Tibet; what Gelukpa writers call analytical meditation is syllogistic reasoning within meditation. Thus, Jamyang Shaypa fails to recognize the possibility of an 'analytical meditation' based on observation, even when he cites passages on breath meditation from Vasubandhu's Treasury of Manifest Knowledge and, especially, Asaṅga's Grounds of Hearers that appear to describe it."[27]

Stephen Batchelor, who for years was monk in the Gelukpa lineage, experienced this firsthand. He writes, "such systematic practice of mindfulness was not preserved in the Tibetan traditions. The Gelugpa lamas know about such methods and can point to long descriptions of mindfulness in their Abhidharma works, but the living application of the practice has largely been lost. (Only in dzog-chen, with the idea of 'awareness' [rig pa] do we find something similar.) For many Tibetans the very term 'mindfulness' (sati in Pali, rendered in Tibetan by dran pa) has come to be understood almost exclusively as 'memory' or 'recollection.'"[28]

As Batchelor noted, however, in other traditions, particularly the Kagyu and Nyingma, mindfulness based on ānāpānasmṛti practice is considered to be quite profound, particularly as an integral component of the practices of Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen, respectively. For the Kagyupa, in the context of mahāmudrā, ānāpānasmṛti is thought to be the ideal way for the meditator to transition into taking the mind itself as the object of meditation and generating vipaśyanā on that basis.[29] The prominent contemporary Kagyu/Nyingma master Chogyam Trungpa, echoing the Kagyu Mahāmudrā view, wrote, "your breathing is the closest you can come to a picture of your mind. It is the portrait of your mind in some sense. . .The traditional recommendation in the lineage of meditators that developed in the Kagyu-Nyingma tradition is based on the idea of mixing mind and breath."[30] Although the Gelukpa allow that it is possible to take the mind itself as the object of meditation, they traditionally discourage it with "what seem to be thinly disguised sectarian polemics against the Nyingma Great Completeness [Dzogchen] and Kagyu Great Seal [mahāmudrā] meditations."[31]

Trungpa made the group practice of ānāpānasmṛti a cornerstone of his teaching in the West, although this is almost unheard of in the Tibetan tradition, where some form of visualization, syllogistic reasoning, or virtuous quality is the typical meditation object of choice (outside of the context of Mahāmudrā) and group practice invariably comprises chanting and ritual.

In the Pañcakrama tantric tradition ascribed to (the Vajrayana) Nagarjuna, ānāpānasmṛti counting breaths is said to be sufficient to provoke an experience of vipaśyanā (although it occurs in the context of "formal tantric practice of the completion stage in highest yogatantra").[32][33]

[edit] Notes1.^ In the Pali canon, the instructions for anapanasati are presented as either one tetrad (four instructions) or four tetrads (16 instructions). The most famous exposition of four tetrads — after which Theravada countries have a national holiday (see uposatha) — is the Anapanasati Sutta, found in the Majjhima Nikaya (MN), sutta number 118 (for instance, see Thanissaro, 2006). Other discourses which describe the full four tetrads can be found in the Samyutta Nikaya's Anapana-samyutta (Ch. 54), such as SN 54.6 (Thanissaro, 2006a), SN 54.8 (Thanissaro, 2006b) and SN 54.13 (Thanissaro, 1995a). The one-tetrad exposition of anapanasati is found, for instance, in the Kayagata-sati Sutta (MN 119; Thanissaro, 1997), the Maha-satipatthana Sutta (DN 22; Thanissaro, 2000) and the Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10; Thanissaro, 1995b).
2.^ In regards to practicing anapanasati in tandem with other frames of reference (satipatthana), Thanissaro (2000) writes:
At first glance, the four frames of reference for satipatthana practice sound like four different meditation exercises, but MN 118 [the Anapanasati Sutta] makes clear that they can all center on a single practice: keeping the breath in mind. When the mind is with the breath, all four frames of reference are right there. The difference lies simply in the subtlety of one's focus.... s a meditator get more skilled in staying with the breath, the practice of satipatthana gives greater sensitivity in peeling away ever more subtle layers of participation in the present moment until nothing is left standing in the way of total release.
3.^ According to Kamalashila (2004), one practices anapanasati with mettā bhāvanā in order to prevent withdrawal from the world and the loss of compassion.
4.^ Anālayo (2006), p. 125.
5.^ "A Sketch of the Buddha's Life". Access to Insight. www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
6.^ Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta No. 118, Section No. 2, translated from the Pali
7.^ Satipatthana Sutta
8.^ Kamalashila (2004). Meditation: The Buddhist Way of Tranquillity and Insight. Birmingham: Windhorse Publications; 2r.e. edition. ISBN 1-899579-05-2. . Regarding this list's items, the use of counting methods is not found in the Pali Canon and is attributed to the Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga. According to the Visuddhimagga, counting (Pali: gaṇanā) is a preliminary technique, sensitizing one to the breath's arising and ceasing, to be abandoned once one has consistent mindful connection (anubandhā) with in- and out-breaths (Vsm VIII, 195-196). Sustained breath-counting can be soporific or cause thought proliferation (see, e.g., Anālayo, 2006, p. 133, n. 68).
9.^ John Dunne talks on Buddhist phenomenology from the Indo-Tibetan textual point of view at ccare.stanford.edu/node/21
10.^ a b The Three Pillars of Zen
11.^ a b "The Three Pillars of Zen" edited by Philip Kapleau
12.^ a b "Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy" by Katsuki Sekida
13.^ Philippe Goldin in Cognitive Neuroscience of Mindfulness Meditation www.youtube.com/watch?v=sf6Q0G1iHBI
14.^ The One Voice Chord
15.^ Tanden: Source of Spiritual Strength
16.^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. pp. 80-81
17.^ a b Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 81
18.^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 91
19.^ a b Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 110
20.^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 125
21.^ Hsuan Hua. The Chan Handbook. 2004. p. 44
22.^ Study and Practice of Meditation: Tibetan Interpretations of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions by Leah Zahler. Snow Lion Publications: 2009 pg 107-108)
23.^ Study and Practice of Meditation: Tibetan Interpretations of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions by Leah Zahler. Snow Lion Publications: 2009 pg 108)
24.^ Zahler 119-126
25.^ Zahler 108
26.^ Zahler 108, 113
27.^ Zahler 306
28.^ The Faith to Doubt: Glimpses of Buddhist Uncertainty. by Stephen Batchelor. Parallax Press Berkeley: 1990 pg 8
29.^ Pointing Out the Great Way: The Stages of Meditation in the Mahamudra tradition by Dan Brown. Wisdom Publications: 2006 pg 221-34
30.^ The Path is the Goal, in The Collected Works of Chogyam Trungpa, Vol Two. Shambhala Publications. pgs 49, 51
31.^ (Zahler 131-2)
32.^ Pointing Out the Great Way: The Stages of Meditation in the Mahamudra tradition by Dan Brown. Wisdom Publications: 2006 pg 221
33.^ A Direct Path to the Buddha Within: Go Lotsawa's Mahamudra Interpretation of the Ratnagotra-Vighaga. by Klaus-Dieter Mathes, Wisdom Publications 2008 pg 378

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MettāNiem TAM TU
From Wikipedia

Mettā (Pāli; Devanagari: मेत्ता) or maitrī (Sanskrit) is loving-kindness,[1][2] friendliness,[3][4][5] benevolence,[2][4] amity,[3] friendship,[4] good will,[4] kindness,[6] love,[3] sympathy,[3] close mental union (on same mental wavelength),[4] and active interest in others.[3] It is one of the ten pāramīs of the Theravāda school of Buddhism, and the first of the four sublime states (Brahmavihāras). This is love without clinging (upādāna).

The cultivation of loving-kindness (mettā bhāvanā) is a popular form of meditation in Buddhism. In the Theravadin Buddhist tradition, this practice begins with the meditator cultivating loving-kindness towards themself,[7] then their loved ones, friends, teachers, strangers, enemies, and finally towards all sentient beings. In the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, this practice is associated with tonglen (cf.), whereby one breathes out ("sends") happiness and breathes in ("receives") suffering.[8] Tibetan Buddhists also practice contemplation of the four immeasurables, which they sometimes call 'compassion meditation'[9]

"Compassion meditation" is a contemporary scientific field that demonstrates the efficacy of metta and related meditative practices.

Contents [hide]
1 Basic methods
1.1 Visuddhimagga instructions
1.2 Contemporary trainings
2 Benefits
2.1 Traditional accounts
2.2 "Compassion meditation" research
3 Historical presentations
3.1 Basic intention and verse
3.2 Basic radiating formula
3.3 Kakacupama Sutta (MN 21)
3.4 Karaniya Metta Sutta (Sn 1.8)
3.5 Patisambhidamagga Mettakatha (Ps. 2.4)
3.6 Abhidhammic descriptor (Dhs. 189)
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Sources
7 External links

[edit] Basic methodsMetta meditation is regularly recommended to the Buddha's followers in the 2,500-year-old Pali canon. The canon generally advises radiating metta in each of the six directions, to whatever beings there may be.[10] A different set of practical instructions, still widely used today, is found in the 5th CE Visuddhimagga. In addition, variations on this traditional practice have been popularized by contemporary teachers and applied in modern research settings.

[edit] Visuddhimagga instructionsContemporary instruction for the cultivation of loving-kindness — such as is found in the works of Sharon Salzberg,[11] the Triratna Buddhist Community's Kamalashila,[5] and Matthieu Ricard[12] — is often based in part on a method found in Buddhaghosa's 5th c. CE Pāli exegetical text, the Path to Purification (Pali:Visuddhimagga), Chapter IX.[13][14] This traditional approach is best known for identifying successive stages of meditation during which one progressively cultivates loving-kindness towards:

1.oneself[15]
2.a good friend[16]
3.a "neutral" person
4.a difficult person[17]
5.all four of the above equally[18][19]
6.and then gradually the entire universe[20]
One should avoid choosing someone to whom one is sexually attracted or who is dead.[21] For a "neutral" person, choose someone that you might come into contact with every day, but who does not give rise to strong positive nor strong negative emotions. For a "difficult" person, traditionally choose an enemy, but avoid choosing a person who has just wrecked your life, unless you are very well grounded in awareness.

Matthieu Ricard has recommended we choose to meditate on somebody for whom it is very easy for us to feel unconditional love and compassion.

[edit] Contemporary trainingsMettā signifies friendship and non-violence, "a strong wish for the happiness of others" and also less obvious or direct qualities such as showing patience, receptivity, and appreciation. Loving-kindness is a very specific feeling — a caring for the well-being of another living being, independent of approving or disapproving of them, or expecting anything in return.[22] Practice includes reciting specific words and phrases in order to evoke a "boundless warm-hearted feeling," or visualizing suffering and wishing well for those beings. Non-referential compassion, also known as "pure compassion", involves simply experiencing the feeling of caring for another sentient being.[22] One special technique recommended by Matthieu Ricard is to, "imagine," the state of another.[22] Richard J. Davidson has shown metta to induce changes in the tempoparietal lobe.[23] Loving-kindness is the application of love to suffering. Metta is applied to all beings and, as a consequence, one experiences another of the sublime states: joy (mudita), which is true happiness in another person's happiness.

[edit] BenefitsThe benefits of metta practice are both extolled by ancient texts and increasingly identified by contemporary research.

[edit] Traditional accountsThe most ancient extant Buddhist collection of texts, the Pali Canon, identifies a number of benefits from the practicing of metta meditation, including:

One sleeps easily, wakes easily, dreams no evil dreams. One is dear to human beings, dear to non-human beings. The devas protect one. Neither fire, poison, nor weapons can touch one. One's mind gains concentration quickly. One's complexion is bright. One dies unconfused and — if penetrating no higher — is headed for the Brahma worlds.[24]
The Canon also upholds fully ripened metta development as a foremost antidote to ill will:

“No other thing do I know, O monks, on account of which unarisen ill will does not arise and arisen ill will is abandoned so much as on account of this: the liberation of the heart by loving-kindness. For one who attends properly to the liberation of the heart by loving-kindness, unarisen ill will does not arise and arisen ill will is abandoned.”[25]
Buddhists believe that those who cultivate loving-kindness will be at ease because they will see no need to harbour ill will or hostility. Buddhist teachers may even recommend meditation on loving-kindness as an antidote to insomnia and nightmares. It is generally felt that those around a person full of loving-kindness will feel more comfortable and happy too. Cultivating loving-kindness is thought to contribute to a world of love, peace and happiness.

Meditation on loving-kindness is considered a good way to calm down a distraught mind and an antidote to anger. Someone who has cultivated loving-kindness will not be easily angered and can quickly subdue anger that arises, being more caring, more loving, and more likely to love unconditionally.

[edit] "Compassion meditation" researchA few recent psychological studies suggest that loving-kindness meditation may impact health and well-being. One study done at Stanford University suggests that a short 7 minute practice of loving-kindness meditation can increase social connectedness.[26] Loving-kindness meditation has also been shown to reduce pain and anger in people with chronic lower back pain[27]. Researcher Barbara Fredrickson at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill found that loving-kindness meditation can help boost positive emotions and well-being in life, fostering the personal resources that come from experiencing positive emotion.[28] More research is needed to see whether loving-kindness meditation is appropriate for all populations, whether it works similarly for everyone, and to understand how much practice is needed for the benefits of the practice to manifest.

An EEG study by Richard J. Davidson of people who meditate in metta, with a minimum of 10,000 hours practice, showed substantial differences in the magnitude of gamma waves as well as gamma synchronization, particularly during meditative sessions, and directly afterwards. During baseline states, where the subject was not doing metta, there was a signature brain wave pattern that distinguishes the metta practitioners, lay people as well as monks, from people, at baseline, who have not extensively practiced compassion meditation. This study also showed, during meditation, an increase in the activity of brain areas such as the temporoparietal junction, insula, and amygdala and increase the subject's ability to see things from another's perspective, and actually change the area of the brain that is involved the autonomic system so that the meditator's heartbeat increases. These studies show that the amygdala is modulated during compassion mediation.[23] Compassion meditation has been shown to lower the participants reaction to inflammation and distress, both of which are associated with, "major depression, heart disease and diabetes," in response to stressors, a change that was dependent on the amount of time spent practicing, with practitioners who spent more time meditating having corresponding more significant changes in their brains.[29]

[edit] Historical presentationsIn the Pāli Canon, statements regarding the use of loving-kindness (metta) traditionally employ one or more of the following devices, often using a stock formula:

mental purification
a verse for wishing others well
pervading all directions and all beings with loving-kindness.
The well-known Kakacupama Sutta and Karaniya Metta Sutta use striking metaphors to give these traditional devices vitality. Other canonical materials, such as in the Paṭisambhidāmagga, elaborate on these basic devices in a manner that is perpetuated by the later traditional commentaries. Other canonical sources, such as the Abhidhamma, underline the key role of loving-kindness in the development of wholesome karma.

[edit] Basic intention and verseMay these beings be
free from animosity,
free from oppression,
free from trouble,
and may they look after
themselves with ease!
—Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta[30]

In the Sutta To Cunda the Silversmith (Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta, AN 10.176), the Buddha explains that mental or intentional purity (manasā soceyyaṃ) is threefold: non-greed, non-ill-will and non-delusion. Regarding the manifestation of non-ill-will the discourse describes a virtuous person in the following manner (in English and Pāli):

He bears no ill will and is not corrupt in the resolves of his heart.
[He thinks,] 'May these beings be free from animosity,
free from oppression, free from trouble, and
may they look after themselves with ease!'[30]
Avyāpannacitto hoti appaduṭṭhamanasaṃkappo,
'ime sattā averā
avyāpajjā anīghā
sukhī attānaṃ pariharantu'ti.[31]


This basic statement of intention and verse can also be found in several other canonical discourses.[32]

[edit] Basic radiating formulaIn over a dozen discourses, the following description (in English and Pāli) is provided for radiating loving-kindness in six directions:[33]

He abides, having suffused with a mind of loving-kindness
one direction of the world,
likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth,
and so above, below, around and
everywhere, and to all as to himself;
he abides suffusing the entire universe with loving-kindness,
with a mind grown great, lofty, boundless and
free from enmity and ill will.[34]
So mettāsahagatena cetasā
ekaṃ disaṃ pharitvā viharati.
Tathā dutiyaṃ. Tathā tatiyaṃ. Tathā catutthiṃ.
Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṃ
sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṃ
lokaṃ mettāsahagatena cetasā
vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena
averena abyāpajjena pharitvā viharati.[35]


In the canon, this basic formula is expanded upon in a variety of ways. For instance, a couple of discourses[36] provide the following description of "the path to the company of Brahmā" (brahmānaṃ sahavyatāya maggo) along with a memorable metaphor:

"What ... is the path to the company of Brahmā? Here a bhikkhu abides pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth; so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he abides pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will. When the deliverance of mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none persists there.
"Just as a vigorous trumpeter could make himself heard without difficulty in the four quarters, so too, when the deliverance of mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none persists there. This is the path to the company of Brahmā."[37][38]
[edit] Kakacupama Sutta (MN 21)Incorporating facets of the above textual methods in a series of increasingly vivid similes, the Parable of the Saw Discourse (Kakacupama Sutta, MN 21) provides the following culminating scenario:

"Monks, even if bandits were to savagely sever you, limb by limb, with a double-handled saw, even then, whoever of you harbors ill will at heart would not be upholding my Teaching. Monks, even in such a situation you should train yourselves thus: 'Neither shall our minds be affected by this, nor for this matter shall we give vent to evil words, but we shall remain full of concern and pity, with a mind of love, and we shall not give in to hatred. On the contrary, we shall live projecting thoughts of universal love to those very persons, making them as well as the whole world the object of our thoughts of universal love — thoughts that have grown great, exalted and measureless. We shall dwell radiating these thoughts which are void of hostility and ill will.' It is in this way, monks, that you should train yourselves."[39]

Karaniya Metta Sutta (Sn 1.8)Main article: Metta Sutta
In gladness and in safety,
May all beings be at ease.
—Sutta Nipata 1.8[40]

Even as a mother
protects with her life
Her child, her only child,
So with a boundless heart
Should one cherish
all living beings.
—Sutta Nipata 1.8[40]

The Karaniya Metta Sutta (Sn 1.8) combines both the interpersonal and radiant aspects of canonical expressions of loving-kindness.

This is what should be done
By one who is skilled in goodness,
And who knows the path of peace:
... Wishing: In gladness and in safety,
May all beings be at ease.
Karaṇīyam-
atthakusalena yaṃ
taṃ santaṃ padaṃ abhisamecca
... Sukhino vā khemino hontu
sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā

Whatever living beings there may be;
Whether they are weak or strong, omitting none,
The great or the mighty,
medium, short or small,
Ye keci pāṇa bhūtatthi
tasā vā thāvarā vā anavasesā
Dīghā vā ye mahantā vā
majjhamā rassakāṇukathūlā

The seen and the unseen,
Those living near and far away,
Those born and to-be-born —
May all beings be at ease!
Diṭṭhā vā yeva addiṭṭhā
ye ca dūre vasanti avidūre
Bhūtā vā sambhavesī vā
sabbe sattā bhavantu sukhitattā

Let none deceive another,
Or despise any being in any state.
Let none through anger or ill-will
Wish harm upon another.
Na paro paraṃ nikubbetha
nātimaññetha katthaci naṃ kañci
Byārosanā paṭighasaññā
nāññamaññassa dukkhamiccheyya

Even as a mother protects with her life
Her child, her only child,
So with a boundless heart
Should one cherish all living beings;
Mātā yathā niyaṃ puttaṃ āyusā
ekaputtamanurakkhe
Evampi sabbabhūtesū
mānasaṃ bhāvaye aparimānaṃ

Radiating kindness over the entire world
Spreading upwards to the skies,
And downwards to the depths;
Outwards and unbounded,
Freed from hatred and ill-will.
Mettaṃ ca sabbalokasmiṃ
mānasaṃ bhāvaye aparimānaṃ
Uddhaṃ adho ca tiriyañca
asambādhaṃ
averaṃ asapattaṃ

Whether standing or walking, seated or lying down
Free from drowsiness,
One should sustain this recollection.
This is said to be the sublime abiding....[40]
Tiṭṭhaṃ caraṃ nisinno vā sayāno
vā yāvatassa vigatamiddho
Etaṃ satiṃ adhiṭṭheyya
brahmametaṃ vihāraṃ idhamāhu....[41]


According to the Pāli commentaries, the Buddha originally gave this instruction (of loving-kindness meditation) to monks who were being harassed by the tree spirits of a forest in which the monks were trying to meditate. After doing this meditation in the forest it is said that the spirits were so affected by the power of loving-kindness that they allowed the monks to stay in the forest for the duration of the rainy season.

[edit] Patisambhidamagga Mettakatha (Ps. 2.4)May all beings be free from
enmity, affliction and anxiety,
and live happily.
—Mettākathā (Ps. 2.4)[42]

In the Khuddaka Nikāya's Paṭisambhidāmagga, traditionally ascribed to Ven. Sariputta, is a section entitled Mettākathā (Ps. 2.4, "Instruction on Loving-Kindness").[43] In this instruction, a general formula (below, in English and Pāli), essentially identical to the aforementioned Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta verse (especially evident in the Pāli), is provided for radiating loving-kindness:

"May all beings be
free from enmity, affliction and anxiety,
and live happily."[42]
Sabbe sattā
averā abyāpajjā anīghā
sukhī attānaṃ pariharantu.[44]


In addition, this instruction categorizes twenty-two ways in which "the mind-deliverance of lovingkindness" (mettācetovimutti) can be radiated as follows:

five ways of "unspecified pervasion" (anodhiso pharaṇā):
1.all beings (sabbe sattā )
2.all breathing things (sabbe pāṇā bhāvapariyāpannā)
3.all creatures (sabbe bhūtā bhāvapariyāpannā)
4.all persons (sabbe puggalā bhāvapariyāpannā)
5.all with a personality (sabbe attabhāvapariyāpannā)
seven ways of "specified pervasion" (anodhiso pharaṇā):
1.all women (sabbā itthiyo)
2.all men (sabbe purisā)
3.all Noble Ones (sabbe ariyā)
4.all non-Noble Ones (sabbe anariyā)
5.all deities (sabbe devā)
6.all humans (sabbe manussā)
7.all born in lower realms (sabbe vinipātikā)
ten ways of "directional pervasion" (disā-pharaṇā):
1.of the eastern direction (puratthimāya disāya)
2.of the western direction (pacchimāya disāya)
3.of the northern direction (uttarā disāya)
4.of the southern direction (dakkhīṇāya disāya)
5.of the eastern intermediate direction (puratthimāya anudisāya)[45]
6.of the western intermediate direction (pacchimāya anudisāya)
7.of the northern intermediate direction (uttarā anudisāya)
8.of the southern intermediate direction (dakkhīṇāya anudisāya)
9.of the downward direction (heṭṭhimāya disāya)
10.of the upward direction (uparimāya disāya).
Moreover, the directional pervasions can then be applied to each of the unspecific and specific pervasions. For instance, after radiating loving-kindness to all beings in the east (Sabbe puratthimāya disāya sattā ...), one radiates it to all beings in the west and then north and then south, etc.; then, one radiates it to all breathing things in this fashion (Sabbe puratthimāya disāya pāṇā ...), then all creatures, persons, and so forth until such is extended for all those born in the lower realms.

[edit] Abhidhammic descriptor (Dhs. 189)What are the three
causes of good karma?
The absence of lust,
hate and dullness.
—Dhs. 188[46]

In the Abhidhamma's Dhammasaṅgaṇi, the causes of "good" or "wholesome" (kusala) and "bad" or "unwholesome" (akusala) karmic states (dhammā) are described (Dhs. 188ff.). The three causes of wholesome karma are stated to be the non-greed, non-hate and non-delusion (alobho adoso amoho; cf. kleśā). Non-hate is then defined in the following manner:

The absence of hate, hating, hatred; love, loving, loving disposition; tender care, forbearance, considerateness; seeking the general good, compassion; the absence of malice, of malignity; that absence of hate which is the root of good (karma).[46]
Yo adoso adussanā adussitattaṃ metti mettāyanā mettāyitattaṃ anuddayā anuddayanā anuddayitattaṃ hitesitā anukampā avyāpādo avyāpajjho adoso kusalamūlaṃ, ayaṃ vuccati adoso.[47]

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Kammaṭṭhāna

In Buddhism, kammaṭṭhāna is a Pali word (Sanskrit: karmasthana) which literally means the place of work. Figuratively it means the place within the mind where one goes in order to work on spiritual development. More concretely, it refers to the forty canonical objects of meditation (samatha kammaṭṭhāna), listed in the third chapter of the Visuddhimagga.[1]

The kammatthana collectively are not suitable for all persons at all times. Each kammatthana can be prescribed, especially by a teacher (kalyāṇa-mitta), to a given person at a given time, depending on the person's temperament and state of mind.

Contents [hide]
1 Forty meditation subjects
2 Meditation subjects and jhanas
3 Meditation subjects and temperaments
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography
7 External links

[edit] Forty meditation subjectsThe first ten kammatthana are "wholes" (kasina objects, things which one can behold directly):


(1) earth, (2) water, (3) fire, (4) air, wind, (5) blue, green, (6) yellow, (7) red, (8) white, (9) enclosed space, (10) bright light.
The next ten are objects of repulsion (asubha):


(1) swollen corpse, (2) discolored, bluish, corpse, (3) festering corpse, (4) fissured corpse, (5) gnawed corpse, (6,7) dismembered, or hacked and scattered, corpse, (8) bleeding corpse, (9) worm-eaten corpse, (10) skeleton.
Ten are recollections (anussati):


First three recollections are of the virtues of the Three Jewels:
(1) Buddha
(2) Dharma
(3) Sangha
Next three are recollections of the virtues of:
(4) morality (sīla)
(5) liberality (cāga)
(6) the wholesome attributes of Devas
Recollections of:
(7) the body (kāya)
(8) death (see Upajjhatthana Sutta)
(9) the breath (prāna) or breathing (ānāpāna)
(10) peace (see Nibbana).
Four are stations of Brahma (Brahma-vihara):


(1) unconditional kindness (mettā)
(2) compassion (karuna)
(3) sympathetic joy over another's success (mudita)
(4) evenmindedness, equanimity (upekkha)
Four are formless states (four arūpajhānas):


(1) infinite space
(2) infinite consciousness
(3) infinite nothingness
(4) neither perception nor non-perception.
One is of perception of disgust of food (aharepatikulasanna).

The last is analysis of the four elements (catudhatuvavatthana): earth (pathavi), water (apo), fire (tejo), air (vayo).

[edit] Meditation subjects and jhanas[show]
Table:
Jhāna-related factors.
first
jhāna second
jhāna third
jhāna fourth
jhāna
sensuality
(kāma),
unskillful
qualities
(akusala
dhamma) secluded
from,
withdrawn
applied
thought
(vitakka) accom-
panies
jhāna stilled
sustained
thought
(vicāra)
rapture
(pīti) seclusion-
born;
pervades
body samādhi-
born;
pervades
body fades
away
(as does
distress)
pleasure
(sukha) pervades
physical
body aban-
doned
(as is
pain)
pure,
mindful
equanimity
(upekkhā-
sati-
pārisuddhi) [internal
confidence,
mental
unification] equani-
mous,
mindful neither
pleasure
nor pain;
permeates
body with
pure mind
Table's sources:
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005). In the Buddha's Words, pp. 296-8
(SN 28:1-9). Somerville, MA: Wisdom Pub. ISBN 081714911.Sri Lanka Buddha Jayanti Tipitaka Series (n.d.). Pañcaṅgika-
vaggo (AN 5.1.3.8, in Pali). Retrieved 2007-06-06 from
MettaNet-Lanka.Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997). Samadhanga Sutta: The Factors
of Concentration (AN 5.28). Retrieved 2007-06-06 from
"Access to Insight".

Of these, due to their complexity, the first eight recollections, the perception of disgust of food and the analysis of the four elements only lead to access concentration (upacara samadhi).

Absorption in the first jhana can be realized by mindfulness on the ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body. However, these meditations cannot go beyond the first jhana due to their involving applied thought (vitaka) which is absent from the higher jhanas.

Absorption in the first three jhanas can be realized by contemplating the first three brahma-viharas. However, these meditations cannot aid in attaining the fourth jhana due to the pleasant feelings associated with them. Conversely, once the fourth jhana is induced, the fourth brahma-vihara (equanimity) arises.

Due to the simplicity of subject matter, all four jhanas can be induced through mindfulness of breathing and the ten kasinas.[2]

[edit] Meditation subjects and temperamentsAll of the aforementioned meditation subjects can suppress the Five Hindrances, thus allowing one to fruitfully pursue wisdom. In addition, anyone can productively apply specific meditation subjects as antidotes, such as meditating on foulness to counteract lust or on the breath to abandon discursive thought.

The Pali commentaries further provide guidelines for suggesting meditation subjects based on ones general temperament:

Greedy: the ten foulness meditations; or, body contemplation.
Hating: the four brahma-viharas; or, the four color kasinas.
Deluded: mindfulness of breath.
Faithful: the first six recollections.
Intelligent: recollection of death or peace; the perception of disgust of food; or, the analysis of the four elements.
Speculative: mindfulness of breath.
The six non-color kasinas and the four formless states are suitable for all temperaments.[2]

[edit] See alsoBuddhist meditation
Samatha
Anapanasati
Jhana in Theravada
Vipassanā
[edit] Notes1.^ Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), p. 90. In the Pali literature, prior to the post-canonical Pali commentaries, the term kammaṭṭhāna comes up in only a handful of discourses and then in the context of "work" or "trade." For instance, in the first three nikayas, the term is found only in the Subha Sutta (MN 99), although there it is found 22 times. In this discourse, it is contextualized, for instance, in this question to the Buddha by the brahmin Subha:
"Master Gotama, the brahmins say this: 'Since the work of the household life [Pali: gharāvāsa-kammaṭṭhāna] involves a great deal of activity, great functions, great engagements, and great undertakings, it is of great fruit. Since the work of those gone forth [Pali: pabbajjā-kammaṭṭhāna] involves a small amount of activity, small functions, small engagements, and small undertakings, it is of small fruit.' What does Master Gotama say about this?" (Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi, 2001, p. 809; the square-bracketed Pali is from Bodhgaya News' searchable Tipitaka database at bodhgayanews.net/tipitaka.php?title=&record=3693.)
Similarly, in the famed Dighajanu Sutta (AN 8.54):

"And what does it mean to be consummate in initiative? There is the case where a lay person, by whatever occupation he makes his living [Pali: yena kammaṭṭhānena jīvikaṃ kappeti] — whether by farming or trading or cattle tending or archery or as a king's man or by any other craft — is clever and untiring at it, endowed with discrimination in its techniques, enough to arrange and carry it out. This is called being consummate in initiative." (Thanissaro, 1995; the square-bracketed Pali is from Bodhgaya News' searchable Tipitaka database at bodhgayanews.net/tipitaka.php?title=sutta%20pitaka&action=next&record=6649.)
An identical phrasing can be found in the very next discourse, the Ujjaya Sutta (AN 8.55) (see bodhgayanews.net/tipitaka.php?title=sutta%20pitaka&action=next&record=6653), and in the Dutiya Sampadā Sutta (AN 8.76) (see bodhgayanews.net/tipitaka.php?title=&record=6689). A last canonical use of this term can be found in the Sakya Sutta (AN 10.46):

"What do you think, Sakyans. Suppose a man, by some profession or other [Pali: yena kenaci kammaṭṭhānena], without encountering an unskillful day, were to earn a half-kahapana. Would he deserve to be called a capable man, full of initiative?" (Thanissaro, 2000; the square-bracketed Pali is from Bodhgaya News' searchable Tipitaka database starting at bodhgayanews.net/tipitaka.php?title=&record=6888.)
2.^ a b Gunaratana (1988).
[edit] BibliographyBuddhaghosa, Bhadantacariya & Bhikkhu Nanamoli (trans.) (1999), The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle: BPS Pariyatti Editions. ISBN 1-928706-00-2.
Gunaratana, Henepola (1988). The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation (Wheel No. 351/353). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0035-X. Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/gunaratana/wheel351.html.
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2001). The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-072-X.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1995), Dighajanu (Vyagghapajja) Sutta: To Dighajanu (AN 8.54). Retrieved 6 Apr. 2010 from "Access to Insight" at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.than.html.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000), Sakka Sutta: To the Sakyans (on the Uposatha) (AN 10.46). Retrieved 6 Apr. 2010 from "Access to Insight" at www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/an10.046.than.html

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Samatha

Samatha (Pāli), śamatha (Sanskrit; also orthographically romanized to shamatha) "calm abiding," comprises a suite, type or style of Buddhist meditation or concentration practices designed to enhance sustained voluntary attention, and culminates in an attention that can be sustained effortlessly for hours on end.[1] Samatha is a subset of the broader family of samādhi ("concentration") meditation practices.[2]

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 General discussion
3 In the early suttas
4 Contemporary Theravāda interpretations
5 In the Indo-Tibetan tradition
5.1 Relevant sūtras
5.2 Factors in śamatha
5.3 Śamatha in mahāmudrā and dzogchen
5.4 Relationship with vipaśyanā
6 See also
7 External links
8 Notes

[edit] EtymologyThe Tibetan term for samatha is shiney (wylie: zhi-gnas). According to Jamgon Kongtrul, insight may be garnered by an exegesis of the etymology of śamatha and shiney:

The Tibetan term is shiné [shi-ne] (shi-gnas) and the Sanskrit is Shamatha. In the case of the Tibetan, the first syllable, shi, and in the case of the Sanskrit, the first two syllables, shama, refer to "peace" and "pacification". The meaning of peace or pacification in this context is that normally our mind is like a whirlwind of agitation. The agitation is the agitation of thought. Our thoughts are principally an obsessive concern with past, conceptualization about the present, and especially an obsessive concern with the future. This means that usually our mind is not experiencing the present moment at all.[3]

The semantic field of shi and shama is "pacification", "the slowing or cooling down", "rest".[4] The semantic field of né is "to abide or remain" and this is cognate or equivalent with the final syllable of the Sanskrit, thā.[5]

[edit] General discussionBuddhists consider meditation to be an act of concentration on a particular object or idea, sometimes in conjunction with inquiry into the nature of the object, as with wisdom (P: paññā, S: prajñā) or insight (P: vipassanā; S: vipaśyanā) practices (such as those encountered in the dzogchen tradition).[6] Therefore, meditations from other religious traditions are sometimes referred to as a variation of samatha meditation that differ in the focus of concentration, such as breathing, scriptural passage, mantra, religious picture, a rock, body (as a representation of death), and so on. In this sense, samatha is not a strictly Buddhist meditation. Mindfulness (sati) of breathing (ānāpāna: ānāpānasati; S. ānāpānasmṛti[7]) is the most common samatha practice. Samatha in its single-pointed focus and concentration of mind is cognate with the sixth "limb" of aṣṭanga yoga', rāja yoga which is concentration (dhāraṇā). For further discussion, see the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali.

For Buddhists, samatha is commonly practiced as a prelude to and in conjunction with wisdom practices.[6] Traditionally, in Buddhist meditation there are forty objects of meditation, although the breath as an object of meditation enjoys the widest popularity traditionally. Samatha can include other samādhi practices as well.

Samatha is commonly used in Theravada Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism and various branches of the Pure Land tradition.

[edit] In the early suttasThe Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:

calm abiding (Pāli: samatha) which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;
insight (Pāli: vipassanā) which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).[8]
Through the meditative development of calm abiding, one is able to suppress the obscuring five hindrances. With the suppression of these hindrances, the meditative development of insight yields liberating wisdom.[9] Moreover, the Buddha is said to have extolled serenity and insight as conduits for attaining the unconditioned state of nibbana (Pāli; Skt.: Nirvana). For example, in the Kimsuka Tree Sutta (SN 35.245), the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of nibbana via the noble eightfold path.[10]

In the Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta (AN 4.170), Ven. Ānanda reports that people attain arahantship using calm abiding and insight in one of three ways:

1.they develop calm abiding and then insight (Pāli: samatha-pubbangamam vipassanam)
2.they develop insight and then calm abiding (Pāli: vipassana-pubbangamam samatham)[11]
3.they develop calm abiding and insight in tandem (Pāli: samatha-vipassanam yuganaddham), for instance, obtaining the first jhāna and then seeing in the associated aggregates the three marks of existence before proceeding to the second jhāna.[12]
In the Pāli canon, the Buddha never mentions independent samatha and vipassana meditation practices; instead, samatha and vipassana are two "qualities of mind" to be developed through meditation. As Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes, "when [the Pāli suttas] depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying 'go do vipassana,' but always 'go do jhana.' And they never equate the word "vipassana" with any mindfulness techniques. In the few instances where they do mention vipassana, they almost always pair it with samatha — not as two alternative methods, but as two qualities of mind that a person may 'gain' or 'be endowed with,' and that should be developed together.[13] Similarly, referencing MN 151, vv. 13-19, and AN IV, 125-27, Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the Thai Forest Tradition) writes that "some traditions speak of two types of meditation, insight meditation (vipassana) and calm meditation (samatha). In fact the two are indivisible facets of the same process. Calm is the peaceful happiness born of meditation; insight is the clear understanding born of the same meditation. Calm leads to insight and insight leads to calm."[14]

Nonetheless, some meditation practices such as contemplation of a kasina object favor the development of samatha, others such as contemplation of the aggregates are conducive to the development of vipassana, while others such as mindfulness of breathing are classically used for developing both mental qualities.[15]

[edit] Contemporary Theravāda interpretationsIn the "New Burmese Method" or "Vipassana School" an approach to samatha and vipassana was developed by Mingun Jetavana Sayādaw U Nārada and popularized by Mahasi Sayadaw. Here samatha is considered an optional but not necessary component of the practice—vipassana is possible without it. Another Burmese method, derived from Ledi Sayadaw via U Ba Khin and S. N. Goenka, takes a similar approach. The Thai Forest tradition deriving from Ajahn Mun and popularized by Ajahn Chah, in contrast, stresses the inseparability of the two practices, and the essential necessity of both practices. Other Burmese traditions popularized in the west, notably that of Pa Auk Sayadaw, uphold the emphasis on samatha explicit in the commentarial tradition of the Visuddhimagga.

A 2008 book by Richard Shankman entitled The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation comparatively surveys the treatment of samatha in the suttas, in the commentarial tradition of the Visuddhimagga, and among a number of prominent contemporary Theravāda teachers of various orientations.[16]

[edit] In the Indo-Tibetan tradition[edit] Relevant sūtrasA number of Mahāyāna sūtras address śamatha, usually in conjunction with vipaśyanā. One of the most prominent, the Cloud of Jewels Sutra (Ārya Ratnamegha Sutra, Tib. 'phags-pa dkon-mchog sprin-gyi mdo) divides all forms of meditation into either śamatha or vipaśyanā, defining śamatha as "single-pointed consciousness" and vipaśyanā as "seeing into the nature of things."[17] The Sūtra Unlocking the Mysteries (Samdhinirmocana Sūtra), a yogācāra sūtra, is also often used as a source for teachings on śamatha. The Samādhirāja Sūtra is often cited as an important source for śamatha instructions by the Kagyu tradition, particularly via commentary by Gampopa,[18] although scholar Andrew Skilton, who has studied the Samādhirāja Sūtra extensively, reports that the sūtra itself "contains no significant exposition of either meditational practices or states of mind."[19]

[edit] Factors in śamathaIn a formulation originating with Asaṅga (4th CE), śamatha practice is said to progress through nine "mental abidings" (S. navākārā cittasthiti, Tib. sems gnas dgu), leading to śamatha proper (the equivalent of "access concentration" in the Theravāda system) and from there to an exceptional state of meditative concentration called the first dhyāna (Pāli: jhāna; Tib. bsam gtan) which is often said to be a state of tranquillity or bliss.[1][20] Thus, it furthers the right concentration aspect of the noble eightfold path. The successful result of samatha is also sometimes characterized as meditative absorption (samādhi, ting nge ’dzin) and meditative equipoise (samāhita, mnyam-bzhag), and freedom from the five obstructions (āvaraṇa, sgrib-pa). It may also result in the siddhis of clairvoyance (abhijñā, mgon shes) and magical emanation (nirmāna, sprul pa).[21]

Asaṅga delineates the nine mental abidings in his Abhidharmasamuccaya and the Śrāvakabhūmi chapter of his Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. It is also found in the Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkāra of Maitreyanātha. The system of the five faults and eight antedotes originates with Maitreyanātha's Madhyānta-vibhāga. The whole system is elaborated further in the three Bhāvanākrama texts (particularly the second one) of Kamalaśīla, a later author, and by generations of Tibetan commentators.[22] Thus the following shamatha formulation derives originally from the Yogācāra tradition.

To practice śamatha, one must select an object of observation (ālambana, dmigs-pa). Then one must overcome the five faults (ādīnava, nyes-dmigs):[21][23]

1. laziness (kausīdya, le-lo)
2. forgetting the instruction (avavādasammosa, gdams-ngag brjed-pa)
3. laxity (laya, bying-ba) and excitement (auddhatya, rgod-pa). Laxity may be coarse (audārika, rags-pa) or subtle (sūksma, phra-mo). Lethargy (styana, rmugs-pa) is often also present, but is said to be less common.
4. non-application (anabhisamskāra, ’du mi-byed-pa)
5. [over]application (abhisamskāra, ’du byed-pa)
Using the eight antidodes (pratipakṣa, gnyen-po) or applications (abhisamskāra, ’du-byed pa):[21]

for laziness:
1. faith (śraddhā, dad-pa)
i. contemplate faults of distraction (vikṣepa, rnam-par gyen-ba)
2. aspiration (chanda, ’dun-pa)
3. exertion (vyayama, rtsol-ba)
4. pliancy (praśrabdhi, shin-sbyangs)
for forgetting the instruction:
5. mindfulness (smṛti, dran-pa)
for laxity and excitement
6. awareness (samprajaña, shes-bzhin)
for non-application
7. application (abhisaṃskāra, ’du byed-pa)
for overapplication
8. non-application (anabhisaṃskāra, ’du mi-byed-pa)
Six powers (bala, stobs) are also needed for śamatha:[24]

1. hearing (śruta, thos-pa)
2. thinking (cintā, bsam-pa)
3. mindfulness (smṛti, dran-pa)
4. awareness (samprajaña, shes-bzhin)
5. effort (vīrya, brtson-’grus)
6. familiarity (paricaya, yong-su ’dris-pa)
Four modes of mental enagagement (manaskāra, yid-la byed-pa) are said to be possible:[21]

1. forcible engagement (balavāhana, sgrim-ste ’jug-pa)
2. interrupted engagement (sacchidravāhana, chad-cing ’jug-pa)
3. uninterrupted engagement (niśchidravāhana, med-par ’jug-pa)
4. spontaneous engagement (anābhogavāhana, lhun-grub-tu ’jug-pa)
The Nine Mental Abidings (navākārā cittasthiti, sems-gnas dgu) are:[21]

1. placement of the mind (cittasthāpana, sems ’jog-pa)
2. continuous placement (samsthāpana, rgyun-du ‘jog-pa)
3. re-placement (avasthāpana, slan-te ’jog-pa)
4. close placement (upasthāpana, nye-bar ’jog-pa)
5. disciplining (damana, dul-bar byed-pa)
6. pacifying (śamana, zhi-bar byed-pa)
7. thorough pacification (vyupaśamana, nye-bar zhi-bar byed-pa)
8. one-pointedness (ekotīkarana, rtse-gcig-tu byed-pa)
9. placement in equipoise (samādhāna, mnyam-par ’jog-pa)
(10. śamatha, the culmination, is sometimes listed as a tenth stage)
[edit] Śamatha in mahāmudrā and dzogchenŚamatha is approached somewhat differently in the mahāmudrā tradition as practiced in the Kagyu lineage. As Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche explains,

In the practice of Mahamudra tranquilty meditation . . we treat all thoughts as the same in order to gain sufficient distance and detachment from our current mental state, which will allow us to ease naturally into a state of tranquility without effort or contrivance... In order for the mind to settle, we need to suspend the value judgments that we impose on our mental activities... it is essential that we not try to create a state of tranquility but allow the mind to enter into tranquility naturally. This is an important notion in the Mahamudra tradition, that of nondoing. We do not do tranquility mediation, we allow tranquility to arise of its own accord, and it will do so only if we stop thinking of the meditative state as a thing that we need to do actively... In a manner of speaking, catching yourself in the act of distraction is the true test of tranquility meditation, for what counts is not the ability to prevent thoughts or emotions from arising but the ability to catch ourselves in a particular mental or emotional state. This is the very essence of tranquility meditation [in the context of Mahāmudrā]. . . The Mahamudra style of meditation does not encourage us toward the different levels of meditative concentration traditionally described in the exoteric mediation manuals. . . From the Mahamudra point of view, we should not desire meditative equipoise nor have an aversion to discursive thoughts and conflicting emotions but view both of these states with equanimity. Again, the significant point is not whether meditative equipoise is present but whether we are able to maintain awareness of our mental states. If disturbing thoughts do arise, as they certainly will, we should simply recognize these thoughts and emotions as transient phenomena.[25]

For the Kagyupa, in the context of mahāmudrā, śamatha by means of mindfulness of breathing is thought to be the ideal way for the meditator to transition into taking the mind itself as the object of meditation and generating vipaśyanā on that basis.[26]

Quite similar is the approach to śamatha found in dzogchen semde (Sanskrit: mahāsandhi cittavarga). In the semde system, śamatha is the first of the four yogas (Tib. naljor, Wylie: rnal-’byor),[27] the others being vipaśyanā (Wylie: lhag-mthong), nonduality (advaya, Tib. nyime, Wylie: gnyis-med),[28] and spontaneous presence (anābogha or nirābogha, Tib. lhundrub, Wylie: lhun-grub).[29] These parallel the four yogas of mahāmudrā.

Ajahn Amaro, one of the abbots of Abhayagiri Monastery and a longtime student in the Thai Forest Theravādin tradition of Ajahn Chah, has also trained in the dzogchen semde śamatha approach under Tsoknyi Rinpoche. He found similarities in the approaches of the two traditions to śamatha.[30]

[edit] Relationship with vipaśyanāDzogchen Pönlop Rinpoche clearly charts the developmental relationship of the practices of śamatha and vipaśyanā:

The ways these two aspects of meditation are practised is that one begins with the practice of shamatha; on the basis of that, it becomes possible to practice vipashyana or lhagthong. Through one's practrice of vipashyana being based on and carried on in the midst of shamatha, one eventually ends up practicing a unification [yuganaddha] of shamatha and vipashyana. The unification leads to a very clear and direct experience of the nature of all things. This brings one very close to what is called the absolute truth.[31]

[edit] See alsoKammaṭṭhāna
Muraqaba
Samadhi
Vipassanā
[edit] External linksBuddhist Meditation in the Theravada tradition
How Meditation Works
The Samatha Trust
Buddhanet Main Page
Buddhanet Meditation E-Books
Photos of cushions and Samatha-practicing people
Lama Gursam talks on Calm Abiding Meditation, aka Shamatha
[edit] Notes1.^ a b Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.6
2.^ Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.131
3.^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.69.
4.^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.69.
5.^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.70.
6.^ a b Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.164
7.^ although this term is also used for vipassanā meditation
8.^ These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the Four Kinds of Persons Sutta (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. See also Thanissaro (1998d).
9.^ See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267-68, and Thanissaro (1998e).
10.^ Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-53. See also Thanissaro (1998c) (where this sutta is identified as SN 35.204). See also, for instance, a discourse (Pāli: sutta) entitled "Serenity and Insight" (SN 43.2), where the Buddha states: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight...." (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73).
11.^ While the Nikayas identify that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, a fruitful vipassana-oriented practice must still be based upon the achievement of stabilizing "access concentration" (Pāli: upacara samādhi).
12.^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also Thanissaro (1998f).
13.^ Thanissaro 1997
14.^ Brahm (2006). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond. Wisdom Publications, Inc. p. 25. ISBN 0-86171-275-7.
15.^ See, for instance, Bodhi (1999) and Nyanaponika (1996), p. 108.
16.^ The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation by Richard Shankman. Shambhala: 2008. ISBN 1590305213
17.^ "How to practice Calm-Abiding Meditation," Dharma Fellowship, [1],
18.^ Collected Works of Chogyam Trungpa, Vol. II Shambhala Publications. pg 19
19.^ "State or Statement?: Samādhi in Some Early Mahāyāna Sūtras." The Eastern Buddhist. 34-2. 2002 pg 57
20.^ The Practice of Tranquility & Insight: A Guide to Tibetan Buddhist Mediation by Thrangu Rinpoche. Snow Lion Publications; 2 edition. 1998 ISBN 1559391065 pg 19
21.^ a b c d e Meditative States in Tibetan Buddhism By Lati Rinpoche, Denma Locho Rinpoche, Leah Zahler, Jeffrey Hopkins Wisdom Publications: December 25, 1996. ISBN 086171119X pgs 53-85
22.^ Study and Practice of Meditation: Tibetan Interpretations of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions by Leah Zahler. Snow Lion Publications: 2009 pg 23
23.^ Study and Practice of Meditation: Tibetan Interpretations of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions by Leah Zahler. Snow Lion Publications: 2009 pg 5)
24.^ Meditative States in Tibetan Buddhism By Lati Rinpoche, Denma Locho Rinpoche, Leah Zahler, Jeffrey Hopkins Wisdom Publications: December 25, 1996. ISBN 086171119X pgs 54-58
25.^ Mind at Ease, by Traleg Kyabgon, Shambhala Publications pgs 149-152, 157
26.^ Pointing Out the Great Way: The Stages of Meditation in the Mahamudra tradition by Dan Brown. Wisdom Publications: 2006 pg 221-34
27.^ [2]
28.^ Unbounded Wholeness by Anne C. Klein, Tenzin Wangyal. ISBN 0-19-517849-1 pg 349)
29.^ Unbounded Wholeness by Anne C. Klein, Tenzin Wangyal. ISBN 0-19-517849-1 pg 357, 359
30.^ Ajahn Chah's 'View of the View'", in Broad View, Boundless Heart by Ajahn Amaro.[3]
31.^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambala. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.76.

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Vipassanā (Pāli)

Vipassanā (Pāli) or vipaśyanā (विपश्यना, Sanskrit) in the Buddhist tradition means insight into the nature of reality. A regular practitioner of Vipassana is known as a Vipassi (vipaśyin). Vipassana is one of world's most ancient techniques of meditation, the inception of which is attributed to Gautama Buddha. It is a practice of self-transformation through self-observation and introspection. In English, vipassanā meditation is often referred to simply as "insight meditation".

In the Theravadin context, this entails insight into the three marks of existence. In Mahayana contexts, it entails insight into what is variously described as sunyata, dharmata, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness, clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.[1]

In a broader sense, vipassanā has often been used as one of two poles for the categorization of types of Buddhist meditation, the other being samatha (Pāli; Sanskrit: śamatha). Samatha is a focusing, pacifying and calming meditation, common to many traditions in the world, notably yoga. It is used as a preparation for vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work of insight. In Buddhist practice it is said that, while samatha can calm the mind, only insight can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which leads to prajñā (Pāli: paññā, wisdom) and jñāna (Pāli: ñāṇa, knowledge) and thus understanding, preventing it from being disturbed again.

The term is also used to refer to the modern Buddhist vipassana movement (modeled after Theravāda Buddhism meditation practices), which employs vipassanā and ānāpāna meditation as its primary techniques and places emphasis on the teachings of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. The primary initial subject of investigation in that style of meditation is sensation and feeling (Skt: Vedanā).

Contents [hide]
1 Name
2 Practice of vipassanā
2.1 In the Theravāda
2.1.1 Contemplative forms
2.1.2 Experiential forms
2.1.3 Result
2.2 In the Mahāyāna
2.2.1 Inductive and deductive analysis in the Indo-Tibetan tradition
2.3 In Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen
3 Vipassanā movement
4 See also
5 External links
6 References

[edit] NameVipassanā is a Pali word from the Sanskrit prefix "vi-" and verbal root paś. It is often translated as "insight" or "clear-seeing," though, the "in-" prefix may be misleading; "vi" in Indo-Aryan languages is equivalent to the Latin "dis." The "vi" in vipassanā may then mean to see apart, or discern. Alternatively, the "vi" can function as an intensive, and thus vipassanā may mean "seeing deeply".

A synonym for "Vipassanā" is paccakkha (Pāli; Sanskrit: pratyakṣa), "before the eyes," which refers to direct experiential perception. Thus, the type of seeing denoted by "vipassanā" is that of direct perception, as opposed to knowledge derived from reasoning or argument.

In Tibetan, vipashyana is lhagthong (wylie: lhag mthong). The semantic field of "lhag" means "higher", "superior", "greater"; the semantic field of "thong" is "view" or "to see". So together, lhagthong may be rendered into English as "superior seeing", "great vision" or "supreme wisdom." This may be interpreted as a "superior manner of seeing", and also as "seeing that which is the essential nature". Its nature is a lucidity - a clarity of mind.[2]

[edit] Practice of vipassanāVipassanā meditation differs in the modern Buddhist traditions and in some nonsectarian forms. It includes any meditation technique that cultivates insight including contemplation, introspection, observation of bodily sensations, analytic meditation, and observations about lived experience. Therefore, the term can include a wide variety of meditation techniques across lineages.

[edit] In the TheravādaVipassanā as practiced in the Theravāda includes contemplating Buddhist teachings, including the Four Noble Truths, as well as more experiential forms such as deep body awareness. In the latter forms it is a simple technique which depends on direct experience and observation. It can be related to the three trainings taught by the Buddha as the basis of a spiritual path: adherence to a sīla (Sanskrit: śīla) (abstinence from killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct and intoxication), which is not an end in itself but a requirement for the second part, concentration of the mind (samādhi). With this concentrated mind, the third training, in the context of this technique (paññā, Sanskrit prajñā), is detached observation of the reality of the mind and body from moment to moment.

[edit] Contemplative formsContemplations include understanding logically or through mental activity that the nature of phenomena is transitory and the nature of persons is selflessness, that the conceptual consciousness "I" does not exist.

One method is that there are 40 topics that can be concentrated by the meditator such as anitya (Pāli anicca, impermanence), duḥkha (Pāli dukkha, suffering), roga (illness), and so on. The meditator can meditate on one of these until he sees the truth in everything in the universe.

[edit] Experiential formsIn the experiential forms, meditation consists of the experiential observation of mind and matter (nāma and rūpa) in their aspects of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and lack of an inherent, independent essence or self.

Although it includes body awareness as part of the practice, it is not a "body scan" technique. The purpose is also not to release past trauma, but to bring full awareness of the mind, body and all sensations and be fully present. This practice is thought to develop a deep, experiential understanding of the impermanence of all phenomena and also brings to the surface and dissolves deep-seated complexes and tensions. The technique fosters development of insight and needs to be continued as a way of life in order to obtain lasting effects.[citation needed]

The meditation object is one's own consciousness, although it can be further refined to be one's consciousness while observing, say, the breath, as in anapanasati meditation. In this context, the modes of seeing refers to focusing on those aspects of consciousness which appear to have (or not have) these characteristics.

The underlying principle is the investigation of phenomena as they manifest in the Four Foundations of Mindfulness highlighted in the Satipatthana Sutta; namely: kaya (body or breath), vedana (feeling or sensation), citta (mind or consciousness), and dhamma (mind objects).[3] These phenomena differ from the khandhas (aggregates) because the citta factor is not connected to any aggregate, as it is the basic mood of the mind-body aggregate, while the dhamma encompasses all mind objects that are fruits of kamma (i.e., the vinnana, sanna and sankhara aggregates), and also all mind objects that are not a fruit of kamma, such as the Four Noble Truths.

[edit] ResultTo see through the mode of impermanence means to examine things to determine whether they are permanent. To see through the mode of unsatisfactoriness means to examine things to determine whether they are satisfactory or are imbued with suffering. To see through the mode of non-self means to examine meditation objects to see whether they are permanent, isolated, and enduring entities. In other words, to see through non-self relates to having a sense of non-doership and a sense of non-possessorship while examining things.

Most of Theravāda's teachers refer to knowledges evolving during practice. The meditator gradually improves his perception of the three marks of existence. Some steps are described as vipassanā jhānas, or simply as knowledges.

The practitioner reaches the step where gross bodily sensations (Vedana) dissolve and there is a subtle flow of sensations throughout the body, which is called bhaṅgānupassanā ñāṇa (Sanskrit: bhaṅgānupaśyanājñāna), knowledge of dissolution. This is an ongoing, evolutionary process, that continues to reveal layer upon layer of mental purification. The yogi or yogini experiences increasing cessation of cravings (attachments) and aversions (fears), and eventually will reach the step of saṅkhārupekkhāñāṇa (Sanskrit: saṃskāropekṣājñāna): strongly founded knowledge of equanimity of all formations. This step leads to the attainment of nibbāna.

[edit] In the MahāyānaSimilar to the Theravadan approaches, Mahāyāna vipaśyanā includes contemplation on Buddhist teachings as well as experiential awareness. The latter is particularly prevalent in East Asian traditions such as Zen. But in addition and in particular the Mahāyāna practitioner contemplates the two truths doctrine: the nature of conventional truth and absolute truth. Through the cultivation of this awareness, one realizes that both self and external phenomena lack an inherent existence and have the nature of emptiness (Skt: śūnyatā). This is determined by the inferential path of reasoning and direct observation through meditation.

The Mahāyāna also introduced meditation upon visualizations, such as an image of Prajnaparamita in female, deity form, as a way to contemplate Buddhist teachings. Each component of the visualization evokes a particular teaching and the practitioner then contemplates using a visual symbolic representation.

Gradualism or Subitism and the realisation is a debate in the Mahāyāna. Nevertheless, Huineng, sixth patriarch of the Zen, considered the practice cannot be described as gradualistic nor subitist, but implies people with more or less clear minds.

[edit] Inductive and deductive analysis in the Indo-Tibetan traditionIt appears that Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism employed both deductive investigation (applying premises to experience) and inductive investigation (drawing conclusions from direct experience) in the practice of vipaśyanā at the level of sūtrayāna, corresponding respectively to the "contemplative forms" and "experiential forms" in the Theravāda school described above. As scholar Leah Zahler explains,

The practice tradition suggested by the Treasury [Abhidharma-kośa] .. .--and also by Asaṅga's Grounds of Hearers--is one in which mindfulness of breathing becomes a basis for inductive reasoning on such topics as the five aggregates; as a result of such inductive reasoning, the meditator progresses through the Hearer paths of preparation, seeing, and meditation. It seems at least possible that both Vasubandhu and Asaṅga presented their respective versions of such a method, analogous to but different from modern Theravāda insight meditation, and that Gelukpa scholars were unable to reconstruct it in the absence of a practice tradition because of the great difference between this type of inductive meditative reasoning based on observation and the types of meditative reasoning using consequences (thal 'gyur, prasaanga) or syllogisms (sbyor ba, prayoga) with which Gelukpas were familiar. Thus, although Gelukpa scholars give detailed interpretations of the systems of breath meditation set forth in Vasubandu's and Asaṅga's texts, they may not fully account for the higher stages of breath meditation set forth in those texts. . . it appears that neither the Gelukpa texbook writers nor modern scholars such as Lati Rinpoche and Gendun Lodro were in a position to conclude that the first moment of the fifth stage of Vasubandhu's system of breath meditation coincides with the attainment of special insight and that, therefore, the first four stages must be a method for cultivating special insight [although this is clearly the case].[4]

As she notes, it appears that only the tradition of deductive analysis in vipaśyanā was transmitted to Tibet in the sūtrayāna context. This tradition is outlined by Kamalaśīla in his three Bhāvanākrama texts (particularly the second one), following in turn an approach described in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.[5] One scholar describes his approach thus: "the overall picture painted by Kamalaśīla is that of a kind of serial alternation between observation and analysis that takes place entirely within the sphere of meditative concentration" in which the analysis portion consists of Madhyamaka reasonings.[6] Contemporary Tibetan scholar Thrangu Rinpoche explains,

The approach in the sutras . . .is to develop a conceptual understanding of emptiness and gradually refine that understanding through meditation, which eventually produces a direct experience of emptiness . . . we are proceeding from a conceptual understanding produced by analysis and logical inference into a direct experience . . . this takes a great deal of time. . . we are essentially taking inferential reasoning as our method or as the path. There is an alternative . . . which the Buddha taught in the tantras . . . the primary difference between the sutra approach and the approach of Vajrayana (secret mantra or tantra) is that in the sutra approach, we take inferential reasoning as our path and in the Vajrayana approach, we take direct experience as our path. In the Vajrayana we are cultivating simple, direct experience or "looking." We do this primarily by simply looking directly at our own mind.[7]

In general there are two kinds of meditation: the meditation of the paṇḍita who is a scholar and the nonanalytical meditation or direct meditation of the kusulu, or simple yogi. . . the analytical meditation of the paṇḍita occurs when somebody examines and analyzes something thoroughly until a very clear understanding of it is developed. . . The direct, nonanalytical meditation is called kusulu meditation in Sanskrit. This was translated as trömeh in Tibetan, which means "without complication" or being very simple without the analysis and learning of a great scholar. Instead, the mind is relaxed and without applying analysis so it just rests in its nature. In the sūtra tradition, there are some nonanalytic meditations, but mostly this tradition uses analytic meditation.[8]

That is, in Tibet direct examination of moment-to-moment experience as a means of generating vipaśyanā became exclusively associated with vajrayāna. When vipaśyanā was generated in a sūtrayāna context, it necessarily involved conceptual contemplation of points of doctrine. One exception to this dichotomy, however, was the approach of Kagyu tradition known as sūtra mahāmudrā, which emphasizes "direct, unmediated experience" which "goes beyond verbalization."[9] As Zahler noted, the vipassanā "experiential forms" approach advocated in the early suttas and practiced in the Theravāda tradition more closely resembles sūtra mahāmudrā than it does the conventional Tibetan sūtrayāna vipaśyanā. The only significant difference is that in the sūtra mahāmudrā tradition practice is general preceded by pointing-out instruction.

As scholar Klaus-Dieter Mathes notes, "while ordinary vipaśyanā practice [in the Indo-Tibetan sūtrayāna tradition] requires an analytical or intellectual assessment of emptiness which is mainly based on Madhyamaka reasonings, Bkra shis rnam rgyal, for example, starts (!) the presentation of vipaśyanā in his Phyag rgya chen po’i khrid yig chen mo with the following pith-instructions:

Assume the same body posture as before (i.e., as in śamatha practice) and gaze straight [ahead] without blinking or shifting. With lucid and non-conceptual śamatha as a basis, one should keep one’s attention vividly present. In this state look nakedly (rjen lhang gis) into the mind itself to see what shape, colour etc. it has.[10]
This approach is sometimes traced to Sahajavajra’s Tattvadaśakaṭīkā, wherein the author distinguishes his approach to śamatha and vipaśyanā from that featured in the three Bhāvanākrama texts (particularly the second one) of Kamalaśīla. Sahajavajra notes that whereas in Kamalaśīla's approach vipaśyanā is "produced on the basis of analysis," in his own "it must be directly meditated upon with a non-analytical mind."[11]

[edit] In Mahāmudrā and DzogchenMahāmudrā and Dzogchen use vipaśyanā extensively. This includes using some methods of the others traditions but also incorporates different approaches. Like the Mahāyāna they include meditating on symbolic images as contemplations but place a greater emphasis on this form of meditation. Additionally in the Vajrayāna (tantric) path, the true nature of mind is pointed out by the guru and the practitioner practices with that direct experience as a form of vipaśyanā. Many Kagyupas, in fact, consider Mahāmudrā (specifically the traditions Jamgon Kongtrul came to characterize as "sutra" and "essence") "not-specifically-Tantric" following the lead of Gampopa, who "distinguishes . . . a path of direct perception from a general Mahāyāna path of inferences and a Vajrayāna path of blessing."[12]

Thrangu Rinpoche describes the approach using a guru:

In the Sūtra path one proceeds by examining and analyzing phenomena, using reasoning. One recognizes that all phenomena lack any true existence and that all appearances are merely interdependently related and are without any inherent nature. They are empty yet apparent, apparent yet empty. The path of Mahāmudrā is different in that one proceeds using the instructions concerning the nature of mind that are given by one's guru. This is called taking direct perception or direct experiences as the path. The fruition of śamatha is purity of mind, a mind undisturbed by false conception or emotional afflictions. The fruition of vipaśyanā is knowledge (prajnā) and pure wisdom (jñāna). Jñāna is called the wisdom of nature of phenomena and it comes about through the realization of the true nature of phenomena.[13]

Regarding Thrangu Rinpoche, Mathes states "it should be noted that he generally considers such mahāmudrā teachings, or rather the path of direct cognition, to be Vajrayāna. In other words, he does not claim that they constitute a third path beyond the Sūtras and Tantras," unlike some other past and present Kagyu masters.[14]

Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche clearly charts the developmental relationship of the practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā:

The ways these two aspects of meditation are practiced is that one begins with the practice of shamatha; on the basis of that, it becomes possible to practice vipashyana or lhagthong. Through one's practrice of vipashyana being based on and carried on in the midst of shamatha, one eventually ends up practicing a unification of shamatha and vipashyana. The unification leads to a very clear and direct experience of the nature of all things. This brings one very close to what is called the absolute truth.[15]

This approach appears in some respects reminiscent of the one outlined by the Buddha in early suttas (as opposed to that of later Theravada thought) where, as characterized by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, samatha and vipassana are presented as two qualities of mind that should be developed in tandem to master jhāna.[16]

Dzogchen Pönlop Rinpoche evokes an extended poetic metaphor from Milarepa to qualify vipaśyanā (as qualitatively different from śamatha) as having the propensity to "eradicate" klesha:

Insight, or vipashyana (lhagthong), is extremely important because it can eradicate the mental afflications, whereas tranquility [shamatha] alone cannot. That is why we want to be able to practice tranquility and insight in a unified manner. This unified practice has three steps; first, we practice tranquility; then we practice insight; and then we bring the two together. Doing this will eradicate the cause of samsara (which is mental afflictions), thereby eradicating the result of samsara (which is suffering). For this reason, it is improper to become too attached to the delight or pleasure of tranquility, because tranquility alone is not enough. As was said by Lord Milarepa in a song:


"Not being attached to the pool of tranquility
May I generate the flower of insight."[15]
[edit] Vipassanā movementMain article: Vipassana movement
The Vipassana movement refers to a number of branches of modern Theravāda Buddhism as well as non-monastic lineages. Sourced in the various traditions of Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, north India, and Thailand, this movement has produced contemporary American Buddhist teachers such as Lama Surya Das, Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield (inspired by Theravāda teachers Mahasi Sayadaw, Dipa Ma, and Ajahn Chah Subhatto, as well as nonsectarian derivatives from those traditions such as the movement led by S. N. Goenka who studied with teacher Sayagyi U Ba Khin).[17]

Women have been quite prominent as teachers in the Vipassana movement. Though the formal Theravāda vipassana tradition has been maintained by an almost exclusively male monastic tradition, nuns and non-monastic female adepts have played important roles, despite being completely absent or only noted in the background of the historical record.

Teachers within this movement tend to emphasize the importance of examining the kalapas as a means to gaining insight. [18]

Though the vipassana movement uses the term vipassana in its name, vipassana meditation is not specific to those traditions. All forms of Buddhism utilize some form of vipassana meditation.

[edit] See alsoĀnāpāna
Atthakavagga and Parayanavagga
Buddhism
Buddhist meditation
Global Vipassana Pagoda
Meditation
Samatha
Satipatthana
Tipitaka
Upasana
[edit] External linksInsight Meditation Online From Buddhanet.net
Meditation From Yellowrobe.com
Meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka and his assistant teachers in the tradition of Sayagyi U Ba Khin
Saddhamma Foundation Information about practicing Vipassana meditation.
Non-Sectarian Vipassana Meditation Centers Worldwide course schedule free vipassana training
[edit] References1.^ "Vipashyana," by Reginald A. Ray. Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly, Summer 2004.[1]
2.^ Ray (2004) p.74
3.^ Ajahn Brahm, Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Wisdom Publications, 2006, pages 103-127.
4.^ Zahler 108, 113
5.^ "Some Notes on Kamalasila's Understanding of Insight Considered as the Discernment of Reality (bhūta-pratyavekṣā)", by Martin Adam, Buddhist Studies Review, Vol. 25, No.2, 2008, p 3
6.^ "Some Notes on Kamalasila's Understanding of Insight Considered as the Discernment of Reality (bhūta-pratyavekṣā)", by Martin Adam, Buddhist Studies Review, Vol. 25, No.2, 2008, p 3
7.^ Pointing out the Dharmakaya by Thrangu Rinpoche. Snow Lion: 2003. ISBN: 1559392037, pg 56
8.^ The Practice of Tranquillity & Insight: A Guide to Tibetan Buddhist Meditation by Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche. Shambhala Publications: 1994. ISBN: 0877739439 pg 91-93
9.^ Mind at Ease: Self-Liberation through Mahamudra Meditation by Traleg Kyabgon. Shambhala Publications: 2004. ISBN: 1590301560 pg 196
10.^ “Blending the Sūtras with the Tantras: The influence of Maitrīpa and his circle on the formation of Sūtra Mahāmudrā in the Kagyu Schools,” by Klaus-Dieter Mathes in Tibetan Buddhist Literature and Praxis: Studies in its Formative Period, 900–1400. PIATS 2003: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. pg 204
11.^ Mathes 217
12.^ “Blending the Sūtras with the Tantras: The influence of Maitrīpa and his circle on the formation of Sūtra Mahāmudrā in the Kagyu Schools,” by Klaus-Dieter Mathes in Tibetan Buddhist Literature and Praxis: Studies in its Formative Period, 900–1400. PIATS 2003: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. pg 201
13.^ Thrangu Rinpoche, Looking Directly at Mind : The Moonlight of Mahāmudrā
14.^ “Blending the Sūtras with the Tantras: The influence of Maitrīpa and his circle on the formation of Sūtra Mahāmudrā in the Kagyu Schools,” by Klaus-Dieter Mathes in Tibetan Buddhist Literature and Praxis: Studies in its Formative Period, 900–1400. PIATS 2003: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. pg 204
15.^ a b Ray (2004) p.76
16.^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice". [2].
17.^ Fronsdal, Gil (1998) p.1
18.^ Living Buddhist Masters, Jack Kornfield 1977, Prajna Press.
Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.) (2004) In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers ISBN 1-57062-849-1
Fronsdal, Gil (1998) Insight Meditation in the United States: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness from Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka, The Faces of Buddhism in America, Chapter 9
Glickman, Marshall (1998). Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness Through Whole-Body Vipassana Meditation. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 1582900434

[TCTV]

Mahasati Meditation

Also known as Dynamic meditation, Mahasati Meditation is a form of mindfulness meditation. It is a technique developed by the late Thai Buddhist reformist, Luangpor Teean Jittasubho. Mahasati Meditation uses movement of the body to generate self-awareness and is a powerful tool for self-realization. Practiced throughout Asia and in the United States, this method of meditation is appropriate for anyone regardless of religion or nationality.

Contents [hide]
1 Practice of Mahasati Meditation
2 Rhythmic movements
3 Four basic positions to meditate
4 Self-awareness in daily life
5 Biography of Luangpor Teean Jittasubho
6 Living teachers
7 Quotes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

[edit] Practice of Mahasati MeditationMahasati Meditation is a meditation technique concerned about how to end suffering. The Buddha taught that each of us could come to the very important point of the cessation of suffering. Mahasati Meditation is a simple and direct method of practice developed by Luangpor Teean Jittasubho, an important teacher in the world of Thai Buddhism.

Many teachers, mostly from the East, provide many different forms of meditation. Some teachers use breath-counting and breath-concentration. Others teach concentration on a mantra or a koan. Some tell their students to visualize a religious image or some form of light or color. These methods all share the same central theme - the concentration of the mind.

He taught that meditation is the art of seeing things as they are with awareness and wisdom. Usually we see the world and everything around us through the filter of our concepts or thoughts and through our mental images which we have collected in our daily life since childhood. Thus, these thought are both the source of human activity and human suffering. Thought is, for Luangpor Teean, the source of greed, anger and delusion.

Luangpor Teean said that we cannot simply suppress greed, anger, and delusion by keeping moral precepts, nor can we suppress them by maintaining calmness through some form of meditation based on concentration. Though these activities are useful to some extent, we need to go to the root of suffering: to let awareness see through and break through. When we see things as they are, the mind changes its qualities completely. At the very moment of awareness, the mind immediately becomes active, clear, and pure. With this active, clear, and pure mind we will realize the law of nature and the freedom of life. And then, we will be free from suffering. Mahasati Meditation is a form of moving meditation. In Mahasati Meditation the practitioner moves rhythmically with their awareness open to the movement of body and mind. The movements are simple and repetitious, yet Mahasati Meditation is a powerful, deep, and advanced method for self-realization.

The aim of Mahasati Meditation is to attain direct insight into one's self-freedom from pain and suffering, and to attain a healthy mind, one that is stable and wise. This healthy mind benefits not only the practitioner, but is also a beneficial influence on the practitioner's surroundings, including those who are close to him or herself, and to society in general.

[edit] Rhythmic movements



1. Rest the hands palm down on the thighs.
2. Turn the right hand onto its edge, be aware; do it slowly, then stop. Do not say to yourself "turn the right hand", being aware is enough.
3. Raise the right hand up, be aware, and then stop.
4. Lower the right hand to rest on the abdomen, be aware, and then stop.
5. Turn the left hand onto its edge, be aware, and then stop.
6. Raise the left hand up, be aware, and then stop.
7. Lower the left hand to rest on the right hand, be aware, and then stop.
8. Move the right hand up to rest on the chest, be aware, and then stop.
9. Move the right hand out, be aware, and then stop.
10. Lower the right hand onto its edge on the thigh be aware, then stop.
11. Face the right palm down, be aware, and then stop.
12. Move the left hand up to rest on the chest, be aware, and then stop.
13. Move the left hand out, be aware, and then stop.
14. Lower the left hand onto its edge on the thigh is aware, and then stop.
15. Face the left palm down, be aware, and then stop.

[edit] Four basic positions to meditateMahasati Meditation can be practiced in four basic positions: sitting, lying, standing, walking.

After sitting for a long time, which may cause pains and aches, practitioners can change the position to the walking back and forth. After walking for a long time, they can change to the sitting posture. This is called changing the positions; sitting, lying, standing, walking. Practitioners should allot them properly.

Practitioners do not move the arms while walking. Practitioners should fold the arms across the chest, or clasp the hands behind the back.

While walking back and forth, practitioners should be aware of the feeling or the feet. It is not necessary to say to themselves, "right foot moves", "left foot moves". Practitioners should not walk too fast or too slow, they have to walk naturally.

[edit] Self-awareness in daily lifeTo cultivate self-awareness, practitioners must practice as much as possible. Practitioners can practice even when we get in a car or on a bus. While sitting on a bus or in a car, practitioners lay our hand on the thigh and turn the palm up and down, or they run the thumb over the fingertip, or they make a fist and open it repeatedly. The key is to do every movement slowly and be aware. According to Mahasati Meditation, this is the natural way of cultivating self-awareness, learning Dhamma with nature.

[edit] Biography of Luangpor Teean Jittasubho

Luangpor Teean Jittasubho (1911–1988), or Pann Intapew, was born on September 5, 1911, at Buhom, Amphur Chiengkhan in the northeastern province of Loei, in Thailand. His father died when he was young. Luangpor Teean did not have formal education in his childhood. The boy, like the rest of them in the village, had to help his mother in running their farm. At the age of eleven, he was ordained as a novice at the village monastery, and stayed there with his uncle who was a resident monk. During a year and six months in the monastery, he studied Laotian scripts and ancient local scripts. He also started practicing various meditation methods, such as the Budh-dho and Breath Counting methods. After disrobing, he returned to his home.

Following tradition, he was ordained as a monk at the age of twenty. Again he studied and practiced meditation with his uncle for six months. After returning to lay life, he was married at twenty-two and had three sons. In his village, he was always a leader in Buddhist activities and was highly respected and chosen to be the head of the village on three different occasions. Despite of heavy responsibilities, he continued his meditation practice regularly.

Later he moved to Chiengkhan, a larger community, where his sons could attend school. Being a merchant, he sailed his steamboat along the Maekhong River between Chiengkhan-Nongkai-Vientiane, or even as far as Luangprabang. He had opportunities to meet several meditation masters and his enthusiasm in pursuing Dhamma (the Truth) continued to strengthen. Furthermore, he began to realize that many years of being good, making merit, and practicing various methods of meditation had not liberated him from his anger. Finally, he determined to start searching for the way out.

In 1957, when he was nearly forty-six, he left his home with firm determination not to return unless he found the Truth. He went to Wat Rangsimukdaram, Tambol Pannprao, Amphur Tabon in Nongkai Province and practiced a simple form of bodily movements except that he did not follow the recitation of the words "ting-ning" (moving-stopping) like others did. What he did was only being aware of the movements of the body and mind. Within a couple of days, his mind reached the End of Suffering completely without traditional rituals or teachers.

Later he returned home. He taught his wife and relatives what he had found for two years and eight months, as a lay teacher. He then decided to re-enter monkhood in order to be in a better position to teach the people. The ordination was made on February 3, 1960.

After realizing Dhamma, Luangpor Teean traveled around Thailand. Wherever he went to he taught the true messages of the Dhamma. He also established several meditations centers through out Thailand. Wat Sanamnai is one of his meditation centers. Even though this temple is located on the outskirts of Bangkok, it maintains all the characteristics and formality of the Thai forest tradition.

In 1985, Wat Sanamnai Monastery was formally permitted a temple. Luangpor Teean held a Sangkha meeting with all the monks who studied the Mahasati Meditation method and appointed Luangpor Thong the abbot of Wat Sanamnai. After Luangpor Teean died in 1989, “Luangpor Teean Jittasubho (Pann Intapew) Foundation” was founded, with Luangpor Thong as its president, a position he has maintained to this day.

Luangpor Teean’s teachings were spreading across the country as well as outside. He devoted his life to the teaching of Dhamma despite his poor health. He was diagnosed to have stomach cancer (malignant lymphoma) in 1982. In spite of his illness he continued his work actively and incisively until the end of his life.

On September 13, 1988, he died at the age of seventy-seven in a hut on Koh Buddhadhamma, Tabb Ming Kwan, Tambol Gudpong in Loei Province.

[edit] Living teachersLuangpor Thong Abhakaro [1]
Achan K. Khemananda [2]
Loo-ang por Kamkee-an [3]
Bhikkhu Nirodho [4]
[edit] QuotesThe rat (thought) is bigger and stronger than the kitten (awareness)
"Generally, when thought arises, the mind will be dragged along like a kitten trying to catch a big rat. The rat (thought) is bigger and stronger than the kitten (awareness). When the rat shows up, the kitten, by nature, will catch the rat. The rat is frightened and runs away with the kitten holding on. After a while the kitten becomes tired and let the rat go. Similarly, thoughts will arise endlessly and stop by themselves.

As we cultivate self-awareness more and more, it is like we keep feeding a kitten until it becomes a big, strong cat. When thought arises, the mind will not be dragged along and thought will stop immediately."
Luangpor Teean Jittasubho
(Source: Luangpor Teean Jittasubho A Manual of Self-Awareness, Bangkok: Luangpor Teean Foundation, 1994)

One is one's own shelter

"You should not believe what I have said, but prove it for yourself. If anyone just believes me, that's wrong. Change your mind - don't just believe. Prove it with yourself and thoroughly understand it - then believe. Otherwise, whom should we believe? The Buddha? Don't even believe in the Buddha or teachers. We must believe in ourselves. The Buddha taught us we will be our own refuge. The Buddha said 'attahi-attano-nato' - "One is one's own shelter." Since most people have no shelter, they turn to something else which prevents them from finding the real shelter."
Luangpor Thong Abhakaro
(Source: Luangpor Thong Abhakaro, Beyond Text, Beyond Scriptures, Bangkok: Luangpor Teean Foundation)

[edit] References(1) www.buddhanet.net/wbd/search.php?country_id=53&province_id=0&offset=50
(2) www.baus.org/sati/to_one_that_feels.htm
(3) www.wb-university.org/?do=shownews&banid=2&newid=28
(4) www.balv.org/oc/article_showall.asp?cat_id=13&parent_id=7&parent_name=Buddhism&sub_name=Mahasati+Meditation

[edit] Further readingLuangpor Teean, To One that Feels. Bangkok: Supa Printing Co, Ltd., 3rd Ed 2005, ISBN 974-94394-3-0
_____________, Normality, Bangkok: Luangpor Teean Foundation, 2004
_____________, Nibbana, Bangkok: Medchai Printing House, 2006 (Thai Version)
_____________, A Manual of Self-Awareness, Bangkok: Luangpor Teean Foundation, 1994
_____________, Teacher, teaching, Bangkok: Luangpor Teean Foundation, 1997, ISBN 974-89976-1-8
Luangpor Thong Abhakaro, Mahasati Meditation, Taiwan: Mahasati Meditation of Taiwan, 2009 (Chinese Version)
Anchalee Thaiyanond, Against the Stream: The Teaching of Luangpor Teean. Bangkok: Thammasat University Press., 1986

[TCTV]

Zen

From Wikipedia
[hide]Zen
Japanese: Romaji: Zen
Hiragana: ぜん
East Asian: Traditional: 禪
Simplified: 禅
Chinese: Pinyin: Chán
Wade-Giles: Ch'an
pronounced [t͡ʂʰǎn]
Cantonese: Jyutping: Sim4
Shanghainese: Zeu [zø]
Nanchang: Cen
Korean: Revised Romanization: Seon
McCune-Reischauer: Sŏn
Hangul: 선
Vietnamese: Thiền
Sanskrit: dhyāna
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Mahāyāna

Buddhism
Lands
India • China • Japan
Vietnam • Korea
Singapore • Taiwan
Tibet • Bhutan • Nepal
Mongolia
Doctrine
Bodhisattva • Śīla
Samādhi • Prajñā
Śunyatā • Trikāya
Mahāyāna Sūtras
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras
Lotus Sūtra
Nirvāṇa Sūtra
Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra
Avataṃsaka Sūtra
Śūraṅgama Sūtra
Mahāyāna Schools
Mādhyamaka
Yogācāra
Esoteric Buddhism
Pure Land • Zen
Tiantai • Nichiren
History
Silk Road • Nāgārjuna
Asaṅga • Vasubandhu
Portal • Outline
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Zen

Buddhism
The Five Houses
Caodong / Sōtō
Fayan / Hōgen
Guiyang / Igyō
Linji / Rinzai
Yunmen / Unmon
Doctrine and practices
Buddha-nature
Enlightenment
Sitting meditation
Group meditation
Kōan practice
Samādhi
Principal texts
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
Diamond Sūtra
Heart Sūtra
Śūraṅgama Sūtra
Platform Sūtra
Kōan collections
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Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The Japanese word Zen is derived from the Chinese word Chán, which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which means "meditation" or "meditative state".

Zen emphasizes experiential Wisdom in the attainment of enlightenment. As such, it de-emphasizes theoretical knowledge in favor of direct realization through meditation and dharma practice. The teachings of Zen include various sources of Mahāyāna thought, including the Prajñāpāramitā literature and the teachings of the Yogācāra and Tathāgatagarbha schools.

The emergence of Zen as a distinct school of Buddhism was first documented in China in the 7th century CE. From China, Zen spread south to Vietnam, and east to Korea and Japan. As a matter of tradition, the establishment of Zen is credited to the Persian [1] or South Indian prince-turned-monk Bodhidharma, who came to China to teach a "special transmission outside scriptures, not founded on words or letters".

Contents [hide]
1 Zen origins (pre-700 CE)
1.1 Tradition and legends
1.1.1 The Flower Sermon
1.1.2 Bodhidharma
1.2 Patriarchs and lineage
2 Zen history (post-700 CE)
2.1 The Five Houses of Zen
2.2 Chán in China
2.3 Zen in Japan
2.4 Thiền in Vietnam
2.5 Seon in Korea
2.6 Zen in the Western world
3 Zen teachings and practices
3.1 Principles and doctrine
3.2 Zen meditation
3.2.1 Sitting meditation
3.2.2 Intensive group practice
3.3 Koan practice
3.4 Chanting and liturgy
3.5 Other techniques
3.6 Zen and Western culture
3.7 Western Zen lineages
3.7.1 Derived from Japan
3.7.2 Derived from China
3.7.3 Derived from Korea
3.7.4 Derived from Vietnam
3.7.5 Pan-lineage organizations
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

[edit] Zen origins (pre-700 CE)See also: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
The historical records required for a complete, accurate account of early Chán history no longer exist.[2] Theories about the influence of other schools in the evolution of Chán are widely variable and rely heavily on speculative correlation rather than on written records or histories. Some scholars have argued that Chán developed from the interaction between Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism.[3][4] Some scholars instead argue that Chán has roots in yogic practices, specifically kammaṭṭhāna, the consideration of objects, and kasiṇa, total fixation of the mind.[5] A number of other conflicting theories exist.

[edit] Tradition and legends[edit] The Flower SermonThe origins of Zen Buddhism are ascribed to the Flower Sermon, the earliest source for which comes from the 14th century.[5] It is said that Gautama Buddha gathered his disciples one day for a Dharma talk. When they gathered together, the Buddha was completely silent and some speculated that perhaps the Buddha was tired or ill. The Buddha silently held up and twirled a flower and twinkled his eyes; several of his disciples tried to interpret what this meant, though none of them were correct. One of the Buddha's disciples, Mahākāśyapa, silently gazed at the flower and broke into a broad smile. The Buddha then acknowledged Mahākāśyapa's insight by saying the following:[5]

I possess the true Dharma eye, the marvelous mind of Nirvāṇa, the true form of the formless, the subtle Dharma gate that does not rest on words or letters but is a special transmission outside of the scriptures. This I entrust to Mahākāśyapa.
Thus, through Zen there developed a way which concentrated on direct experience rather than on rational creeds or revealed scriptures. Wisdom was passed, not through words, but through a lineage of one-to-one direct transmission of thought from teacher to student. It is commonly taught that such lineage continued all the way from the Buddha's time to the present.

[edit] BodhidharmaMain article: Bodhidharma

Bodhidharma. Woodcut print by Yonutsoshi, 1887.
Bodhidharma with Huike. Painting by Sesshū Tōyō, 15th century.The establishment of Chán is traditionally credited to the Indian prince-turned-monk Bodhidharma (formerly dated ca. 500 CE, but now ca. early 5th century[6]), who is recorded as having come to China to teach a "special transmission outside scriptures" which "did not stand upon words".

Bodhidharma is associated with several other names, and is also known by the name Bodhitara. he was given the name Bodhidharma by his teacher known variously as Panyatara, Prajnatara, or Prajñādhara.[7] He is said to have been the son of a southern Indian king, though there is some controversy regarding his origins.

Bodhidharma arrived in China and visited Canton and Luoyang. In Luoyang, he is reputed to have engaged in nine years of silent meditation, coming to be known as "the wall-gazing Brahman"[7] This epithet is referring to him as an Indian holy man.

Bodhidharma settled in the kingdom of Wei where he took among his disciples Daoyu and Huike (慧可). Shortly before his death, Bodhidharma appointed Huike to succeed him, making Huike the first Chinese born patriarch and the second patriarch of Chán in China. Bodhidharma is said to have passed three items to Huike as a sign of transmission of the Dharma: a robe, a bowl, and a copy of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. The transmission then passed to the second patriarch (Huike), the third (Sengcan), the fourth patriarch (Daoxin) and the fifth patriarch (Hongren).

Several scholars have suggested that Bodhidharma as a person never actually existed, but was a combination of various historical figures over several centuries.[8]

In the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) of Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665–713)[9]—one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, the 6th patriarch of Chán Buddhism—it is written that Bodhidharma was the 28th patriarch in a line of descent from Mahākāśyapa, a disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha, and the first patriarch of Chán Buddhism:

Mahākāśyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission; Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West; The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country; And Bodhidharma became the First Father here: His mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers, And by them many minds came to see the Light.[10]

Often attributed to Bodhidharma is the Bloodstream Sermon, which was actually composed quite some time after his death.

Buddhas don't save buddhas. If you use your mind to look for a buddha, you won't see the Buddha. As long as you look for a buddha somewhere else, you'll never see that your own mind is the Buddha. Don't use a buddha to worship a buddha. And don't use the mind to invoke a buddha. Buddhas don't recite sutras. Buddhas don't keep precepts. And buddhas don't break precepts. Buddhas don't keep or break anything. Buddhas don't do good or evil. To find a buddha, you have to see your nature.[11]

Another famous legend involving Bodhidharma is his meeting with Emperor Wu of Liang. Emperor Wu took an interest in Buddhism and spent a great deal of public wealth on funding Buddhist monasteries in China. When he had heard that a great Buddhist teacher, Bodhidharma, had come to China, he sought an audience with him. When they met, Emperor Wu asked how much karmic merit he had gained from his noble support of Buddhism. Bodhidharma replied "None at all." The Emperor asked "Then what is the truth of the teachings?" Bodhidharma replied, "Vast emptiness, nothing holy." So the emperor asked "Then who are you standing in front of me?" Bodhidharma replied "I do not know." and walked out.

Another legend involving Bodhidharma is that he visited the Shaolin Temple in the kingdom of Wei, at some point, and taught them a series of exercises which became the basis for the Shaolin martial arts.[8]

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