What is Theravada Buddhism?

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What is Theravada Buddhism?
John Bullitt

Note: "Theravada" is pronounced (more or less, in American English) like "terra vodda." The "th" sound in Pali is not like the "th" in "thick"; it's pronounced more like the "th" combination in "hothouse".



The "Doctrine of the Elders"

Theravada (Pali: thera "elders" + vada "word, doctrine"), the "Doctrine of the Elders," is the name for the school of Buddhism that draws its scriptural inspiration from the Pali Canon, or Tipitaka, which scholars generally accept as the oldest record of the Buddha's teachings. For many centuries, Theravada has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand; today Theravada Buddhists number over 100 million worldwide. In recent decades Theravada has begun to take root in the West -- primarily in Europe and the USA.

The many names of Theravada

Theravada Buddhism goes by many names. The Buddha himself called the religion he founded Dhamma-vinaya, "the doctrine and discipline," in reference to the two fundamental aspects of the system of ethical and spiritual training he taught. Owing to its historical dominance in southern Asia (Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma), Theravada is also identified as "Southern Buddhism," in contrast to "Northern Buddhism," which migrated northwards from India into China, Tibet, Japan, and Korea. Theravada is often equated with "Hinayana" (the "Lesser Vehicle"), in contrast to "Mahayana" (the "Greater Vehicle"), which is usually a synonym for Tibetan Buddhism, Zen, Ch'an, and other expressions of Northern Buddhism. The use of "Hinayana" as a pejorative has its origins in the early schisms within the monastic community that ultimately led to the emergence of what would later become Mahayana. Today scholars of many persuasions use the term "Hinayana" without pejorative intent.

Pali: the language of Theravada

The language of the Theravada canonical texts is Pali, a relative of Magadhi, a language probably spoken in central India during the Buddha's time. Most of the sermons the Buddha delivered were memorized by Ven. Ananda, the Buddha's cousin and close personal attendant. Shortly after the Buddha's death (ca. 480 BCE), the community of monks -- including Ananda -- convened to recite all the sermons they had heard during the Buddha's forty-five years of teaching. Each recorded sermon (sutta) therefore begins with the disclaimer, Evam me sutam -- "Thus have I heard." The teachings were passed down within the monastic community following a well-established oral tradition. By about 100 BCE the Tipitaka was first fixed in writing in Sri Lanka by Sinhala scribe-monks.

Of course, it can never be proved that the Pali Canon contains the actual words uttered by the historical Buddha (and there is ample evidence to suggest that much of the Canon does not). The wisdom the Canon contains has nevertheless served for centuries as an indispensable guide for millions of followers in their quest for Awakening.

Many students of Theravada find that learning the Pali language -- even just a little bit here and there -- greatly deepens their understanding of the path of practice.

A brief summary of the Buddha's teachings

What follows is a brief synopsis of some of the key teachings of Theravada Buddhism. I've left out a great deal, but I hope that even this rough outline will be enough to get you started in your exploration.

Shortly after his Awakening, the Buddha ("the Awakened One") delivered his first sermon, in which he laid out the essential framework upon which all his later teachings were based. This framework consists of the Four Noble Truths, four fundamental principles of nature (Dhamma) that emerged from the Buddha's honest and penetrating assessment of the human condition and that serve to define the entire scope of Buddhist practice. These truths are not statements of belief. Rather, they are categories by which we can frame our direct experience in a way that is conducive to Awakening:

1. Dukkha: suffering, unsatisfactoriness, discontent, stress;

2. The cause of dukkha: the cause of this dissatisfaction is craving (tanha) for sensuality, for states of becoming, and states of no becoming;

3. The cessation of dukkha: the relinquishment of that craving;

4. The path of practice leading to the cessation of dukkha: the Noble Eightfold Path of right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

To each of these Noble Truths the Buddha assigned a specific task which the practitioner is to carry out: the first Noble Truth is to be comprehended; the second is to be abandoned; the third is to be realized; the fourth is to be developed. The full realization of the third Noble Truth paves the way for the direct penetration of Nibbana (Sanskrit: Nirvana), the transcendent freedom that stands as the final goal of all the Buddha's teachings.

The last of the Noble Truths -- the Noble Eightfold Path -- contains a prescription for the relief of our unhappiness and for our eventual release, once and for all, from the painful and wearisome cycle of birth and death (samsara) to which -- through our own ignorance (avijja) of the Four Noble Truths -- we have been bound for countless aeons. The Noble Eightfold Path offers a comprehensive practical guide to the development of those wholesome qualities and skills in the human heart that must be cultivated in order to bring the practitioner to the final goal, the supreme freedom and happiness of Nibbana. In practice, the Buddha taught the Noble Eightfold Path to his followers according to a "gradual" system of training, beginning with the development of sila, or virtue (right speech, right action, and right livelihood, which are summarized in practical form by the five precepts), followed by the development of samadhi, or concentration and mental cultivation (right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration), culminating in the full development of pañña, or wisdom (right view and right resolve). The practice of dana (generosity) serves as a support at every step along the path, as it can help erode the heart's habitual tendencies towards craving and as it can teach valuable lessons about the causes and results of one's actions (kamma).

Progress along the path does not follow a simple linear trajectory. Rather, development of each aspect of the Noble Eightfold Path encourages the refinement and strengthening of the others, leading the practitioner ever forward in an upward spiral of spiritual maturity that culminates in Awakening.

Seen from another point of view, the long journey on the path to Awakening begins in earnest with the first tentative stirrings of right view, the first flickerings of wisdom by which one recognizes both the validity of the first Noble Truth and the inevitability of the law of kamma (Sanskrit: karma), the universal law of cause and effect. Once one begins to see that harmful actions inevitably bring about harmful results, and wholesome actions ultimately bring about wholesome results, the desire naturally grows to live a skillful, morally upright life, to take seriously the practice of sila. The confidence built from this preliminary understanding inclines the follower to place an even greater trust in the teachings. The follower becomes a "Buddhist" upon expressing an inner resolve to "take refuge" in the Triple Gem: the Buddha (both the historical Buddha and one's own innate potential for Awakening), the Dhamma (both the teachings of the historical Buddha and the ultimate Truth towards which they point), and the Sangha (both the monastic community that has protected the teachings and put them into practice since the Buddha's day, and all those who have achieved at least some degree of Awakening). With one's feet thus firmly planted on the ground by taking refuge, and with the help of an admirable friend (kalyanamitta) to help show the way, one can set out along the Path, confident that one is indeed following in the footsteps left by the Buddha himself.

Buddhism is sometimes naïvely criticized as a "negative" or "pessimistic" religion and philosophy. After all (so the argument goes) life is not all misery and disappointment: it offers many kinds of joy and happiness. Why then this pessimistic Buddhist obsession with unsatisfactoriness and suffering?

The Buddha based his teachings on a frank assessment of our plight as humans: there is unsatisfactoriness and suffering in the world. No one can argue this fact. Were the Buddha's teachings to stop there, we might indeed regard them as pessimistic and life as utterly hopeless. But, like a doctor who prescribes a remedy for an illness, the Buddha offers hope (the third Noble Truth) and a cure (the fourth). The Buddha's teachings thus give cause for an extraordinary degree of optimism in a complex, confusing, and difficult world. One modern teacher summed it up well: "Buddhism is the serious pursuit of happiness."

The Buddha claimed that the Awakening he re-discovered is accessible to anyone willing to put forth the effort and commitment required to pursue the Noble Eightfold Path to its end. It is up to each of us individually to put that claim to the test.

Theravada comes West

Until the late 19th century, the teachings of Theravada were little known outside of Southern and Southeast Asia, where they had flourished for some two and one-half millennia. In the last century, however, the West has begun to take notice of Theravada's unique spiritual legacy and teachings of Awakening. In recent decades, this interest has swelled, with the monastic Sangha from the various schools within Theravada establishing dozens of monasteries across Europe and North America. In addition, a growing number of lay meditation centers in the West, operating independently of the Sangha, currently strain to meet the demands of lay men and women -- Buddhist and otherwise -- seeking to learn selected aspects of the Buddha's teachings.

The turn of the 21st century presents both opportunities and dangers for Theravada in the West: Will the Buddha's teachings be patiently studied and put into practice, so that they may be allowed to establish deep roots in Western soil, for the benefit of many generations to come? Will the current popular climate of "openness" and cross-fertilization between spiritual traditions lead to the emergence of a strong new form of Buddhist practice unique to the modern era, or will it simply lead to the dilution and confusion of these priceless teachings? These are open questions; only time will tell.

Fortunately, the Buddha left us with some very clear and simple guidelines to help us find our way through the perplexing maze of purportedly "Buddhist" teachings that are available to us today. Whenever you find yourself questioning the authenticity of a particular teaching, heed well the Buddha's advice to his stepmother:

The qualities of which you may know, 'These qualities lead to passion, not to dispassion; to being fettered, not to being unfettered; to accumulating, not to shedding; to self-aggrandizement, not to modesty; to discontent, not to contentment; to entanglement, not to seclusion; to laziness, not to aroused persistence; to being burdensome, not to being unburdensome': You may definitely hold, 'This is not the Dhamma, this is not the Vinaya, this is not the Teacher's instruction.'

As for the qualities of which you may know, 'These qualities lead to dispassion, not to passion; to being unfettered, not to being fettered; to shedding, not to accumulating; to modesty, not to self-aggrandizement; to contentment, not to discontent; to seclusion, not to entanglement; to aroused persistence, not to laziness; to being unburdensome, not to being burdensome': You may definitely hold, 'This is the Dhamma, this is the Vinaya, this is the Teacher's instruction.' -- AN VIII.53

The truest test of these teachings, of course, is whether they yield the promised results in the crucible of your own heart. The Buddha presented us with a challenge; it is up to each of us individually to put that challenge to the test.

Source: Access-to-Insight, November 1999, www.accesstoinsight.org/theravada.html

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What is Theravada Buddhism?
Dr. V. A. Gunasekara

Generally three main schools of Buddhism have been identified. These are Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. While this threefold classification is useful it does not encompass the totality of schools and approaches that one encounters in Buddhism, both in the historical past as well as today. For instance the term Mahayana covers a variety of schools ranging from Pure Land Buddhism to Zen. Vajrayana usually refers to Tibetan Buddhism, but even here we have a number of traditions and lineages. In contrast to this diversity it was thought that Theravada referred to a single and definitive strain of Buddhism, that which recognised the Pali Canon as authoritative. Unfortunately this is not the case. First of all there is no complete agreement on what texts should be considered Canonical, and even if there is scholars have identified a number of strata in the Pali Canon. This article seeks to explore some of the strains of Theravada Buddhism that we encounter.

A digression into the historical origin of Theravada may be useful. During the Buddhas lifetime the only schismatic movement was that initiated by Devadatta, but with the downfall of Devadatta this vanishes from the record. Thus at the time of the Buddha's death there was no schisms in the ranks of his disciples. So when three months after the death of the Buddha the Dhamma-Vinaya was rehearsed at the First Council held at the Saptaparna Cave near Rajagaha there was complete agreement. The Canon that was agreed to at this Council probably included only the Vinaya Pitaka and parts of the Sutta Pitaka. The latter probably included the first four Nikayas of the Pali Canon (the Digha, the Majjhima, the Anguttara and the Samyutta) with some of the books in the Khuddhaka Nikaya like the Suttanipata and the Dhammapada. They became the core of the Theravada Canon. There was a rapid expansion of Buddhism from its cradle in North-Central India first to Western India in the first century after the death of the Buddha, then to the South and the North-West.

According to historians of Buddhism the term Theravada first arose in the disputes which arose about a hundred years after the Buddha's death. The first of these disputes related to the validity of certain Vinaya of practices indulged in by some monks in Central India. Some ten practices were involved, some of them rather trivial (like keeping salt in a horn) while others were more substantial (like accepting gifts of gold and silver). The Second Council was convened at Vesali to settle this issue. The views of the monks who opposed the new practices and reiterated the old Vinaya came to be known as the Theravada ("Doctrine of the Elders"). Thus no doctrinal issues were at stake in the Second Council and the Canon of the First Council was again recited to reiterate its validity. Even though the Theravada view became the official view of the Second Council a substantial number of monks continued to hold on to the new practices, and they came to be known as the Mahasanghika.

Another issue of greater doctrinal importance are the five points raised by Mahadeva. Four of these questioned the attainments of the arhat which was the Theravada ideal. Mahadeva claimed that arhats may be sexually tempted, had not eliminated ignorance completely, had doubts and would not have reached enlightenment by their own effort. In addition he advanced the notion of instantaneous enlightenment. These are reminiscent of later Mahayana views but at this stage it is still too early to speak of Mahayana.

Following Mahadeva Indian Buddhism entered the great schismatic period. The two earlier divisions of Theravada and Mahasanghika each generated several schools. None of these however can be identified with the later Mahayana. In fact scholars usually refer to them as the "Hinayana schools". The exact number of schools have been variously counted. Some eighteen schools are identified in the Theravada literature as contesting one or the other of its doctrines and practices. The French scholar Bareau names some thirty-four schools.

The emergence of these new views together with the continuing violation of Vinaya rules by monks led to the convening of the Third Council during the reign of King Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa Thera who was the leading monk behind this Council wrote the Kathavattu to refute the new views put forward, and the monks violating the Vinaya were expelled from the Sangha.

It was during the Third Council that the final version of the Pali Canon was compiled. It added a whole new Pitaka (the Abhidhamma) as well as several new books the Khuddhaka Nikaya. It is this enlarged Canon which was taken to Sri Lanka by the Arahat Mahinda in 246 BCE. It was committed to writing in Sri Lanka in the year 110 BCE at the Aluvihara Monastery, thus freezing it for all time.

Whether the original Buddhism should be confined only to the Dhamma-Vinaya or whether it should include the entirety of the Pali Canon as it now stands has been the subject of some debate. The term Theravada is sometimes used to denote the Canon as it emerged in the Third Council, while the Canons of the First and Second Canon are sometimes referred to as original (or primitive) Buddhism. If this is so then Theravada is not identical to original Buddhism, but it could be argued that none of the material introduced in the Third Council is in direct contravention of the the Dhamma-Vinaya established earlier.

In India itself new Pali texts came to be composed long after the Third Council. These include the Milindapanha, which is highly regarded by Theravadins, and in Burma is actually included in the Canon. After this Theravada Buddhism entered a phase of decline in India. However by this time Theravada Buddhism had been established in Sri Lanka. It was here that the Canon was first comitted to writing.

With the compilation of the commentaries, mainly through the efforts of Buddhaghosa Theravada Buddhism entered a new phase. The classic statement of Theravada as it stood at this time is contained in the Visuddhimagga (The Path to Purity) also written by Buddhaghosa Thera. This represents the final form of Theravada.

-ooOoo-

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What is Theravada?
Maung Kyauk Seinn

One of the Pali words gaining popularity in our country nowadays is Theravada. You hear the word in Buddhist meetings and read it in Dhamma magazines. The government and the people alike use it fondly wherever and whenever occasion arises. What then is Theravada? The following is my humble attempt to explain the word grammatically, historically and doctrinally.

1. Grammatically:

The word Theravada is a compound of two members: Thera and Vada; thera means "elder", especially "an elderly Buddhist monk"; here it stands for the inflected form Theranam, "of the Elders"; the second member vada coming from the root vad, "to speak" signifies "speech", "talk", "word", "doctrine" or even "ism". The word Theravada is frequently translated into English "the Doctrine of the Elders"; sporadic translations are "the Way of the Elders" and "the School of the Elders"; even "old Wisdom School" is met with.

Most probably the word first appears as the name of a Buddhist school in the Dipavamsa, the earlier Chronicle of Sri Lanka, dating the 4th century AD. The name is echoed in the Mahavamsa, the later but the better known and more important Chronicle of the 5th century. But it is the Commentaries and the Sub-commentaries on the Canonical texts that the name is defined and their definitions may be summed up as follows: only the texts (paliyeva) that were formulated at the first two Councils are to be known as Theravada, for they were safeguarded and handed down by such Great Elders as Maha Kassapa and others. They were so named in order to distinguish them from the views of the dissident Mahasanghika school.

2. Historically:

The history of Theravada as a school of Buddhism should begin with a quick survey of the life of Gotama Buddha himself. He was born as a Sakyan prince at a place near the Himalayas about six hundred years BC. Grieved at the ills of life such as old age, sickness and death, he renounced the world at the age of 29 and started seeking the way to Nibbana, "Extinction" of all forms of suffering. At 35 he achieved his goal and became Buddha. He then carried out his teaching mission for 45 years. At 80 he attained Parinibbana, "Total Extinction" (which is the Buddhist way of expressing his demise). Just before that event he left a message to his cousin and attendant monk, Ananda, part of which being:

When I am gone, the Dhamma (Doctrine) and Vinaya (Discipline) that I have taught and laid down shall be your Teacher!

This implies that the Buddha did not want to appoint any person to succeed him on his demise. The two Great Disciples Sariputta and Moggallana had already passed away; but Maha Kassapa who enjoyed the good reputation of being the Third Disciple was alive. But even a man of his stature would not become the Buddha"s successor. By this injunction the Buddha made it clear that only his Dhamma and Vinaya would adequately and effectively serve as the sole guide to his followers. Dhamma-Vinaya therefore was the designation given by the Master himself to his twofold teaching (pavacana) about the time of his Parinibbana. There was no reason whatever to dub it Theravada.

When the First Council was held at Rajagaha three months after the Buddha"s demise with the noble aim of consolidation the Dhamma-Vinaya "before righteousness fades away and before unrighteousness shines forth". The Council was presided over by Maha Kassapa whose questions on the Vinaya and the Dhamma were answered by Upali and Ananda respectively. The answers were confirmed by 500 monks who recited both in unison and passed on from teacher to pupil orally. The name Theravada remained unheard of, at least publicly. It that Buddhism as one whole body with its original designation of Dhamma Vinaya stood in full bloom all over India.

A century later the Second Council was held at Vesali under the collective leadership of Yasa, Revata and Sabbakami to discuss the "ten points" which in fact were the Buddha's certain disciplinary ruler relaxed and practised by imprudent Vajjian monks. The Council composed of 700 members decided the points unlawful and condemned the Vajjians who seceded from that Council to convene their own known as Maha sangha or Mahasangiti, the Great Council, since their number 10,000 far exceeded that of the former. It was the open and serious schism that took place in the Sangha, the Buddhist Order, for the first time. And with the schism emerged two factions of Theravadins, followers of Theravada, and Mahasanghikas or Mahasangitikas, those of the secession.

The Third Council in the tradition of Theravada was held in the 3rd century, according to the Chronicles and Commentaries, with Moggaliputta Tissa as its president and Asoka to the Moriyan Dynasty as its supporter. The venue of the Council was the imperial city Pataliputta. The purpose was to purify the religion and to restore peace to the Order, for many heretics who had joined the Sangha for convenient livelihood caused confusion and unfortunate incidents in the Sangha. At the conclusion of the Council, missionaries were despatched to nine countries including Sri Lanka and Suvannabhumi; to the former went Asoka,s son, Mahinda, leading a group of monks and to the latter, generally taken to be Myanmar, Sona and Uttara.

Scholars are of opinion that Theravada thrived in the country of Magadha in the east and the city of Ujjeni in the west. In his rock and pillar inscriptions, Asoka speaks of compassion, charity, truthfulness, purity and other virtues to be developed witch might be common to all the religions prevailing in the country: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Hinduism, Jainism, etc. From the inscriptions, we also know of his tolerance and even gifts to non-Buddhist sects. But that he was a devout Theravadin in his heart of hearts is evidenced by his famous Bhabru inscription in which he recommends for learning certain Buddhist texts which can be traced in the Pali Canon of the Theravada, the only school which employs that language for recording its scriptures. The inclusion of the Kathavatthu, a work of his time, in the Abhidhamma Pitaka is another piece of evidence, not to speak of his sending of his son Mahinda as a bhikkhu to propagate Theravada Buddhism in the Island as asserted in Buddhist works. In these works, however, the name Theravada is replaced by Vibhajjavada, the "Doctrine of Analysis" or the "Religion of Reason" though the two terms are identical.

The reign of Asoka was however marked by the split of Buddhism into 18 sects which according to one source were Theravada and Mahasanghika plus 10 branching out from the former and 6 from the latter. The misfortune caused by the split was not so great as one might guess, for it was a result of the rapid expansion of Buddhism. Just remember the Buddha"s instruction given to his earliest 60 disciples when he sent them to spread the Dhamma for the welfare and happiness of many: "No two persons shall go in the same direction!" The differences between one sect and another were due to the geographical factor rather than to doctrinal except in a few cases. And many of the sects disappeared after existing for some time.

After its heyday during the time of Asoka, Theravada began to wane in northern India. When the mighty Gupta dynasty arose in AD 428, there must be a number of reasons for this sad turning point in the course of Theravada. One theory says that the decline was brought about by the lack of encouragement of the Gupta kings who as Hindu favored Sanskrit. In fact, it was a time of the revival or even the efflorescence of Sanskrit literature. Their devotion to Hinduism and love for Sanskrit did not help the existence of Theravada let alone its growth, for it is the only school of Buddhism that employs Pali as its language.

It was evident that some of the Guptas showed their interest in Buddhism by making some donations to it, but the recipients were the forms other than Theravada, such as Sarvastivada, an important offshoot of Theravada, and Mahayana, the giant incarnation, as it were, of Mahasanghika, both of which turned to Sanskrit as their sacred language. Pali Buddhism, Theravada, then moved to the south and settled itself along the east coast form which hailed later such Buddhist commentators as Dhammapala of Kancipura and Buddhadatta of Uragapura.

The establishment of Theravada after its introduction there by Mahinda from Pataliputra long before its journey to the south of India, one knows only too well. Its stronghold was the Mahavihara, "the Great Monastery" at Anuradhapura, to which Buddhaghosa, the greatest of commentators in Theravada tradition belonged. It was also a seat of learning producing a number of other writers in Pali. The existence of some antagonistic sects was not unknown but the Mahavihara was powerful enough to prevail over the opponents. In times of danger and adversity also Sri Lanka had good friends in Myanmar and Thai Buddhists who went to their rescue. Today she stands out as a land of missionary monks who are not only well versed in Buddhism but also modern educated and efficient enough to spread the Dhamma, especially in the west.

Nowadays Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand are the three stalwart Theravada states with close religious ties. Though Laos and Cambodia have lost much of their religious lustre both still deserve to be recognised as Theravada countries. In Vietnam, formerly a land of pure Mahayana, Theravada is somewhat developing. In the hill tracts of Bangladesh many of the Baruas, the Chakmas and the Maghs and their fellow countrymen in the Chttagong area still prove to be staunch Theravadins. So do the Shans in the frontier regions of South China.

As for India, the land of the birth of Buddhism as well as of its death, signs of the revival of the Theravada school have been noticed. Mass conversions of Indians to Buddhism have recently taken place. At the most recent conversion ceremony some Mahatheras from Myanmar played a leading role reciting Pali formulas.

3. Doctrinally:

Now to explain Theravada doctrinally, only a few similarities and differences between Theravada and the three other schools mentioned above -- Mahasanghika, Sarvastivada and Mahayana -- will be touched upon as giving details is impossible here.

Theravada and Mahasanghika: In regard to Vinaya, the code of discipline known as Patimokkha in Theravada contains 227 rules while its counterpart, Pratimoksa, Mahasanghika 119. The former"s Bhikkhu-vibhanga and Bhikkhuni-vibhanga probably correspond to the latter"s Bhiksu-vinaya and Bhiksuni-vinaya, which are now extant soly in Chinese. The only surviving work in its original language, Sanskrit, the Mahavastu of the Mahasanghika's Vinaya, has passages that are found parallel to those in the Khuddakapatha, the Vimanavatthu, Buddhavamsa and Dhammapada of the Pali Canon. An important doctrinal difference the two schools is that the Theravadins speak of the human nature of the Buddha where as the Mahasanghikas believe the supramundane nature of Buddhas which is more pronounced in the sect called Lokottaravada and in Mahayana.

Theravada and Sarvastivada: Though the Sarvastivada scriptures are in Sanskrit, they teach the views that are closest to Theravada. Like its patriarch school Theravada, Sarvastivada denies the transcendent powers ascribed to Bodhisattvas. But unlike Theravada, it questions the perfection of Arahats, whom Theravada hold in highest esteem as winners of Nibbana. Its monks observed 155 Vinaya rules. The school has its own Abhidhamma Pitaka, but the seven books are entirely different from the Theravada's. Two commentaries on the Abhidhamma still exist: Vibhasha and Mahavibhasha, and from this the Sarvastivadins are also known as Vabhashikas, "those belonging to the Vibhashas". They believe that "all is" or "all things exist" (Sarvam asti in Sanskrit and sabbam atthi in Pali). That is to say not only the things in the present exist, but also the things in the past and future which are in continuity with the present. Hence the name of their school Sarvastivada.

Theravada and Mahayana: The name Mahayana along with the other name Hinayana its first appearance between the its century BC and the 1st century AD. Occurring in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra, the "Discourse on the Lotus of the Good Law", Mahayana -- the "Greater Vehicle" -- is understood today by many as the name the school of Buddhism prevailing in Tibet, China, Korea, Japan and Mongolia, as opposed to the Hinayana until recently represented by Theravada.

Mahayana covers all forms Buddhism prevalent in those countries as it has incorporated many of the view held by the sects that had branched off from Mahasanghika and have disappeared now. The master who gave a clear definition to this school known sometimes as Northern Buddhism was Nagarjuna of the 2nd century A.D. In common with their brethren, the Theravadins, they believe the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Noble Path, the Dependent Origination, the Three Characteristics of Existence and a number of other basic tenets. Above all, both the schools accept Gotama Buddha as their Teacher. Mahayana built on Compassion and Wisdom has its own divergences, of course, of which only the most important one may be stated here, which is expressed by scholars as the Bodhisatva ideal. Every Mahayanist is a Bodhisatva, "a being whose essence is Enlightenment" as one translation goes. As such he sets his goal not only to attain Nirvana for himself but to provide all sentient beings with the same liberation from the woes of samsara or "life-cycle". Hence their school is greater compared with Hinayana, the school of the "Lesser Vehicle" as its members strive only for their attainment of nirvana as Arahats.

The World Fellowship of Buddhists decided unanimously in Colombo in 1950 that the term Hinayana should be eliminated when referring to the Theravada School of Buddhism. The term Hinayana is now a thing of the past. If the term be used today it should mean any or all of the sects now sunk into oblivion. There exist at present only two schools of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana. The two must be friendlier with each other and be more united in contributing their shares to everlasting peace of the world.

Source: Nibbana.com, web.ukonline.co.uk/buddhism/

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Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism
Ven. Dr. W. Rahula

(From: "Gems of Buddhist Wisdom",
Buddhist Missionary Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1996)



Let us discuss a question often asked by many people: What is the difference between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism? To see things in their proper perspective, let us turn to the history of Buddhism and trace the emergence and development of Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.

The Buddha was born in the 6th Century B.C. After attaining Enlightenment at the age of 35 until his Mahaparinibbana at the age of 80, he spent his life preaching and teaching. He was certainly one of the most energetic man who ever lived: for forty-five years he taught and preached day and night, sleeping for only about 2 hours a day.

The Buddha spoke to all kinds of people: kings and princes, Brahmins, farmers, beggars, learned men and ordinary people. His teachings were tailored to the experiences, levels of understanding and mental capacity of his audience. What he taught was called Buddha Vacana, i.e. word of the Buddha. There was nothing called Theravada or Mahayana at that time.

After establishing the Order of monks and nuns, the Buddha laid down certain disciplinary rules called the Vinaya for the guidance of the Order. The rest of his teachings were called the Dhamma which included his discourses, sermons to monks, nuns and lay people.

The First Council

Three months after the Buddha's Mahaparinibbana, his immediate disciples convened a council at Rajagaha. Maha Kassapa, the most respected and elderly monk, presided at the Council. Two very important personalities who specialised in the two different areas - the Dhamma and the Vinaya - were present. One was Ananda, the closest constant companion and disciple of the Buddha for 25 years. Endowed with a remarkable memory, Ananda was able to recite what was spoken by the Buddha. The other personality was Upali who remembered all the Vinaya rules.

Only these two sections - the Dhamma and the Vinaya - were recited at the First Council. Though there were no differences of opinion on the Dhamma (no mention of the Abhidhamma) there was some discussion about the Vinaya rules. Before the Buddha's Parinibbana, he had told Ananda that if the Sangha wished to amend or modify some minor rules, they could do so. But on that occasion Ananda was so overpowered with grief because the Buddha was about to die that it did not occur to him to ask the Master what the minor rules were. As the members of the Council were unable to agree as to what constituted the minor rules, Maha Kassapa finally ruled that no disciplinary rule laid down by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be introduced. No intrinsic reason was given. Maha Kassapa did say one thing, however: "If we changed the rules, people will say that Ven. Gotama's disciples changed the rules even before his funeral fire has ceased burning."

At the Council, the Dhamma was divided into various parts and each part was assigned to an Elder and his pupils to commit to memory. The Dhamma was then passed on from teacher to pupil orally. The Dhamma was recited daily by groups of people who often cross check with each other to ensure that no omissions or additions were made. Historians agree that the oral tradition is more reliable than a report written by one person from his memory several years after the event.

The Second Council

One hundred years later, the Second Council was held to discuss some Vinaya rules. There was no need to change the rules three months after the Parinibbana of the Buddha because little or no political, economic or social changes took place during that short interval. But 100 years later, some monks saw the need to change certain minor rules. The orthodox monks said that nothing should be changed while the others insisted on modifying some rules, Finally, a group of monks left the Council and formed the Mahasanghika - the Great Community. Even though it was called the Mahasanghika, it was not known as Mahayana, And in the Second Council, only matters pertaining to the Vinaya were discussed and no controversy about the Dhamma is reported,

The Third Council

In the 3rd Century B.C. during the time of Emperor Asoka, the Third Council was held to discuss the differences of opinion among the bhikkhus of different sects. At this Council the differences were not confined to the Vinaya but were also connected with the Dhamma. At the end of this Council, the President of the Council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the Kathavatthu refuting the heretical, false views and theories held by some sects. The teaching approved and accepted by this Council was known as Theravada. The Abhidhamma Pitaka was included at this Council.

After the Third Council, Asoka's son, Ven. Mahinda, brought the Tripitaka to Sri Lanka, along with the commentaries that were recited at the Third Council. The texts brought to Sri Lanka were preserved until today without losing a page. The texts were written in Pali which was based on the Magadhi language spoken by the Buddha. There was nothing known as Mahayana at that time.

Coming of Mahayana

Between the 1st Century B.C. to the 1st Century A.D., the two terms Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the Sutra of the Lotus of the Good Law.

About the 2nd Century A.D. Mahayana became clearly defined. Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata and proved that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. About the 4th Century, there were Asanga and Vasubandhu who wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. After the 1st Century AD., the Mahayanists took a definite stand and only then the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced.

We must not confuse Hinayana with Theravada because the terms are not synonymous. Theravada Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd Century B.C. when there was no Mahayana at all. Hinayana sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no Hinayana sect in existence anywhere in the world. Therefore, in 1950 the World Fellowship of Buddhists inaugurated in Colombo unanimously decided that the term Hinayana should be dropped when referring to Buddhism existing today in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, etc. This is the brief history of Theravada, Mahayana and Hinayana.

Mahayana and Theravada

Now, what is the difference between Mahayana and Theravada?

I have studied Mahayana for many years and the more I study it, the more I find there is hardly any difference between Theravada and Mahayana with regard to the fundamental teachings.

- Both accept Sakyamuni Buddha as the Teacher.
- The Four Noble Truths are exactly the same in both schools.
- The Eightfold Path is exactly the same in both schools.
- The Paticca-samuppada or the Dependent Origination is the same in both schools.
- Both rejected the idea of a supreme being who created and governed this world.
- Both accept Anicca, Dukkha, Anatta and Sila, Samadhi, Panna without any difference.

These are the most important teachings of the Buddha and they are all accepted by both schools without question.

There are also some points where they differ. An obvious one is the Bodhisattva ideal. Many people say that Mahayana is for the Bodhisattvahood which leads to Buddhahood while Theravada is for Arahantship. I must point out that the Buddha was also an Arahant. Pacceka Buddha is also an Arahant. A disciple can also be an Arahant. The Mahayana texts never use the term Arahant-yana, Arahant Vehicle. They used three terms: Bodhisattvayana, Prateka-Buddhayana, and Sravakayana. In the Theravada tradition these three are called Bodhis.

Some people imagine that Theravada is selfish because it teaches that people should seek their own salvation. But how can a selfish person gain Enlightenment? Both schools accept the three Yanas or Bodhis but consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest. The Mahayana has created many mystical Bodhisattvas while the Theravada considers a Bodhisattva as a man amongst us who devotes his entire life for the attainment of perfection, ultimately becoming a fully Enlightened Buddha for the welfare of the world, for the happiness of the world.

Three Types of Buddhahood

There are three types of Buddhahood: the Samma Sambuddha who gains full Enlightenment by his own effort, the Pacceka Buddha who has lesser qualities than the Samma Sambuddha, and the Savaka Buddha who is an Arahant disciple. The attainment of Nibbana between the three types of Buddhahood is exactly the same. The only difference is that the Samma Sambuddha has many more qualities and capacities than the other two.

Some people think that Voidness or Sunyata discussed by Nagarjuna is purely a Mahayana teaching. It is based on the idea of Anatta or non-self, on the Paticcasamuppada or the Dependent Origination, found in the original Theravada Pali texts. Once Ananda asked the Buddha, "People say the word Sunya. What is Sunya?" The Buddha replied, "Ananda, there is no self, nor anything pertaining to self in this world. Therefore, the world is empty." This idea was taken by Nagarjuna when he wrote his remarkable book, "Madhyamika Karika". Besides the idea of Sunyata is the concept of the store-consciousness in Mahayana Buddhism which has its seed in the Theravada texts. The Mahayanists have developed it into a deep psychology and philosophy.

Ven. Dr. W. Rahula

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Theravada Buddhism in Vietnam
Binh Anson

Buddhism came to Vietnam in the first century CE [1]. By the end of the second century, Vietnam developed a major Buddhist centre in the region, commonly known as the Luy-Lau centre, now in the Bac-Ninh province, north of the present Hanoi city. Luy-Lau was the capital of Giao-Chi, former name of Vietnam, and was a popular place visited by many Indian Buddhist missionary monks on their way to China, following the sea route from the Indian sub-continent by Indian traders. A number of Mahayana sutras and the Agamas were translated into Chinese scripts at that centre, including the sutra of Forty Two Chapters, the Anapanasati, the Vessantara-jataka, the Milinda-panha, etc.

In the next 18 centuries, due to geographical proximity with China and despite being annexed twice by the
Chinese, the two countries shared many common features of cultural, philosophical and religious heritage. Vietnamese Buddhism has been greatly influenced by the development of Mahayana Buddhism in China, with the dominant traditions of Ch'an/Zen, Pure Land, and Tantra.

The southern part of the present Vietnam was originally occupied by the Champa (Cham) and the Cambodian (Khmer) people who followed both a syncretic Saiva-Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism [2], although Champa probably had a Theravada presence from as early as the 3rd century CE, whilst Cambodia received the Theravada as late as the 12th century. The Vietnamese started to conquer and absorbed the land in the 15th century, and the current shape of the country was finalised in the 18th century. From that time onward, the dominant Viet followed the Mahayana tradition whilst the ethnic Cambodian practiced the Theravada tradition, and both traditions peacefully co-existed.

In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a number of movements in Vietnam for the revival and modernisation of Buddhist activities. Together with the re-organisation of Mahayana establishments, there developed a growing interest in Theravadin meditation and also in Buddhist materials based on the Pali Canon. These were then available in French. Among the pioneers who brought Theravada Buddhism to the ethnic Viet was a young veterinary doctor named Le Van Giang. He was born in the South, received higher education in Hanoi, and after graduation, was sent to Phnom Penh, Cambodia, to work for the French government [3].

During that time, he developed a growing interest in Buddhism. He started to study and practice the Pure Land and Tantric ways but was not satisfied. By chance, he met the Vice Sangharaja of the Cambodian Sangha and was recommended a book on the Noble Eightfold Path written in French. He was struck by the clear message in the book, and decided to try out the Theravada way. He learnt meditation on the breath (Anapanasati) from a Cambodian monk at the Unalom Temple in Phnom Penh and achieved deep samadhi states. He continued the practice and after a few years, he decided to ordain and took the Dhamma name of Ho-Tong (Vansarakkhita).

Buu-Quang Temple

In 1940, upon an invitation by a group of lay Buddhists led by Mr Nguyen Van Hieu, a close friend, he went back to Vietnam and helped to establish the first Theravada temple for Vietnamese Buddhists, at Go Dua, Thu Duc (now a district of Saigon). The temple was named Buu-Quang (Ratana Ramsyarama). Later, the Cambodian Sangharaja, Venerable Chuon Nath, together with 30 Cambodian bhikkhus established the Sima boundary at this temple [4]. The temple was destroyed by French troops in 1947, and was rebuilt in 1951.

Here at Buu-Quang temple, together with a group of Vietnamese bhikkhus, who had received training in Cambodia, such as Venerables Thien-Luat, Buu-Chon, Kim-Quang, Gioi-Nghiem, Tinh-Su, Toi-Thang, Giac-Quang, An-Lam, Venerable Ho-Tong started teaching the Buddha Dhamma in Vietnamese language. He also translated many Buddhist materials from the Pali Canon, and Theravada became part of Vietnamese Buddhist activity in the country.
In 1949-1950, Venerable Ho-Tong together with Mr Nguyen Van Hieu and supporters built a new temple in Saigon, named Ky-Vien Tu (Jetavana Vihara). This temple became the centre of Theravada activities in Vietnam, which continued to attract increasing interest among the Vietnamese Buddhists. In 1957, the Vietnamese Theravada Buddhist Sangha Congregation (Giao Hoi Tang Gia Nguyen Thuy Viet Nam) was formally established and recognised by the government, and the Theravada Sangha elected Venerable Ho-Tong as its first President, or Sangharaja.

Ky-Vien Temple

During that time, Dhamma activities were further strengthened by the presence of Venerable Narada from Sri Lanka. Venerable Narada had first came to Vietnam in the 1930s and brought with him Bodhi tree saplings which he planted in many places throughout the country. During his subsequent visits in the 1950s and 1960s, he attracted a large number of Buddhists to the Theravada tradition, one of whom was the popular translator, Mr Pham Kim Khanh who took the Dhamma name of Sunanda. Mr Khanh translated many books of Venerable Narada, including The Buddha and His Teachings, Buddhism in a Nutshell, Satipatthana Sutta, The Dhammapada, A Manual of Abhidhamma, etc [5]. Mr Khanh, now in his 80s, lives in the USA and is still active in translating Dhamma books of well-known meditation teachers from Thailand, Burma and Sri Lanka.

Kathina Ceremony

From Saigon, the Theravada movement spread to other provinces, and soon, a number of Theravada temples for ethnic Viet Buddhists were established in many areas in the South and Central parts of Vietnam. As at 1997, there were 64 Theravada temples throughout the country, of which 19 were located in Saigon and its viccinity [6]. Beside Buu-Quang and Ky-Vien temples, other well known temples are Buu-Long, Giac-Quang, Tam-Bao (Da-Nang), Thien-Lam and Huyen-Khong (Hue), and the large Sakyamuni Buddha Monument (Thich-Ca Phat Dai) in Vung Tau.

In the 1960s and 1970s, a number of Vietnamese bhikkhus were sent overseas for further training, mostly in Thailand and some in Sri Lanka and India. Recently, this programme has been resumed and about 20 bhikkhus and nuns are receiving training in Burma.

Historically, there has been a close relationship between the Cambodian and the Vietnamese bhikkhus. In fact, in 1979, after the Khmer Rouge were driven out of Phnom Penh, a group of Vietnamese bhikkhus led by Venerables Buu-Chon and Gioi-Nghiem came to that city to re-ordain 7 Cambodian monks, and thus re-established the Cambodian Sangha which had been destroyed by the Khmer Rouge when they were in control [7].

Dhamma literature in the Vietnamese language comes from two main sources: the Pali Canon and the Chinese Agamas, together with a large collection of Mahayana texts. Since 1980s, there has been an ongoing programme to publish these materials by scholar monks of both Mahayana and Theravada traditions. So far, 27 volumes of the first 4 Nikayas, translated by Venerable Minh-Chau, and the 4 Agamas, translated by Venerables Tri-Tinh, Thien-Sieu and Thanh-Tu, have been produced. Work is under way to translate and publish the 5th Nikaya. In addition, a complete set of the Abhidhamma, translated by Venerable Tinh-Su, has been printed, together with the Dhammapada, the Milinda-Panha, the Visudhi-Magga, the Abhidhammatthasangaha and many other work.

In summary, although Buddhism in Vietnam is predominantly of the Mahayana form, the Theravada tradition is well recognised and is experiencing a growing interest especially in the practice of meditation, in Nikaya-Agama literature and in Abhidhamma studies.

Binh Anson,
Perth, Western Australia
08 June 1999

References

[1] Nguyen Lang, 1973. Viet Nam Phat Giao Su Luan, vol 1 (History of Buddhism in Vietnam)
[2] Andrew Skilton, 1994. A Concise History of Buddhism
[3] Le Minh Qui, 1981. Hoa Thuong Ho-Tong (Biography of Maha Thera Ho-Tong)
[4] Nguyen Van Hieu, 1971. Cong Tac Xay Dung Phat Giao Nguyen Thuy tai Viet Nam (On The Work of Establishing Theravada Buddhism in Vietnam)
[5] Pham Kim Khanh, 1991. Narada Maha Thera
[6] Giac-Ngo Weekly, no. 63, 14-06-1997
[7] Thich Dong Bon, 1996. Tieu Su Danh Tang Viet Nam (Biography of Famous Vietnamese Monks)

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[TCTV]

1. Chanting Book
2. Buddhist Dictionary

3. Concise Pali-English Dictionary

4. Tự điển Pāli-Việt giản lược

5. English-Pali Dictionary

6. Small Pali-English Glossary of Buddhist Terms